Structural and mechanistic insights into the CAND1-mediated SCF substrate receptor exchange.

Modular SCF (SKP1-CUL1-Fbox) ubiquitin E3 ligases orchestrate multiple cellular pathways in eukaryotes. Their variable SKP1-Fbox substrate receptor (SR) modules enable regulated substrate recruitment and subsequent proteasomal degradation. CAND proteins are essential for the efficient and timely exchange of SRs. To gain structural understanding of the underlying molecular mechanism, we reconstituted a human CAND1-driven exchange reaction of substrate-bound SCF alongside its co-E3 ligase DCNL1 and visualized it by cryo-EM. We describe high-resolution structural intermediates, including a ternary CAND1-SCF complex, as well as conformational and compositional intermediates representing SR- or CAND1-dissociation. We describe in molecular detail how CAND1-induced conformational changes in CUL1/RBX1 provide an optimized DCNL1-binding site and reveal an unexpected dual role for DCNL1 in CAND1-SCF dynamics. Moreover, a partially dissociated CAND1-SCF conformation accommodates cullin neddylation, leading to CAND1 displacement. Our structural findings, together with functional biochemical assays, help formulate a detailed model for CAND-SCF regulation.

Structural dynamics: review of time-resolved cryo-EM.

The structural determination of biological macromolecules has been transformative for understanding biochemical mechanisms and developing therapeutics. However, the ultimate goal of characterizing how structural dynamics underpin biochemical processes has been difficult. This is largely due to significant technical challenges that hinder data collection and analysis on the native timescales of macromolecular dynamics. Single-particle cryo-EM provides a powerful platform to approach this challenge, since samples can be frozen faster than the single-turnover timescales of most biochemical reactions. In order to enable time-resolved analysis, significant innovations in the handling and preparation of cryo-EM samples have been implemented, bringing us closer to the goal of the direct observation of protein dynamics in the milliseconds to seconds range. Here, the current state of time-resolved cryo-EM is reviewed and the most promising future research directions are discussed.

Multilayered regulation of autophagy by the Atg1 kinase orchestrates spatial and temporal control of autophagosome formation.

Autophagy is a conserved intracellular degradation pathway exerting various cytoprotective and homeostatic functions by using de novo double-membrane vesicle (autophagosome) formation to target a wide range of cytoplasmic material for vacuolar/lysosomal degradation. The Atg1 kinase is one of its key regulators, coordinating a complex signaling program to orchestrate autophagosome formation. Combining in vitro reconstitution and cell-based approaches, we demonstrate that Atg1 is activated by lipidated Atg8 (Atg8-PE), stimulating substrate phosphorylation along the growing autophagosomal membrane. Atg1-dependent phosphorylation of Atg13 triggers Atg1 complex dissociation, enabling rapid turnover of Atg1 complex subunits at the pre-autophagosomal structure (PAS). Moreover, Atg1 recruitment by Atg8-PE self-regulates Atg8-PE levels in the growing autophagosomal membrane by phosphorylating and thus inhibiting the Atg8-specific E2 and E3. Our work uncovers the molecular basis for positive and negative feedback imposed by Atg1 and how opposing phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events underlie the spatiotemporal regulation of autophagy.

Single-molecule analysis reveals cooperative stimulation of Rad51 filament nucleation and growth by mediator proteins.

Homologous recombination (HR) is an essential DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair mechanism, which is frequently inactivated in cancer. During HR, RAD51 forms nucleoprotein filaments on RPA-coated, resected DNA and catalyzes strand invasion into homologous duplex DNA. How RAD51 displaces RPA and assembles into long HR-proficient filaments remains uncertain. Here, we employed single-molecule imaging to investigate the mechanism of nematode RAD-51 filament growth in the presence of BRC-2 (BRCA2) and RAD-51 paralogs, RFS-1/RIP-1. BRC-2 nucleates RAD-51 on RPA-coated DNA, whereas RFS-1/RIP-1 acts as a "chaperone" to promote 3' to 5' filament growth via highly dynamic engagement with 5' filament ends. Inhibiting ATPase or mutation in the RFS-1 Walker box leads to RFS-1/RIP-1 retention on RAD-51 filaments and hinders growth. The rfs-1 Walker box mutants display sensitivity to DNA damage and accumulate RAD-51 complexes non-functional for HR in vivo. Our work reveals the mechanism of RAD-51 nucleation and filament growth in the presence of recombination mediators.

Modular microfluidics enables kinetic insight from time-resolved cryo-EM.

Mechanistic understanding of biochemical reactions requires structural and kinetic characterization of the underlying chemical processes. However, no single experimental technique can provide this information in a broadly applicable manner and thus structural studies of static macromolecules are often complemented by biophysical analysis. Moreover, the common strategy of utilizing mutants or crosslinking probes to stabilize intermediates is prone to trapping off-pathway artefacts and precludes determining the order of molecular events. Here we report a time-resolved sample preparation method for cryo-electron microscopy (trEM) using a modular microfluidic device, featuring a 3D-mixing unit and variable delay lines that enables automated, fast, and blot-free sample vitrification. This approach not only preserves high-resolution structural detail but also substantially improves sample integrity and protein distribution across the vitreous ice. We validate the method by visualising reaction intermediates of early RecA filament growth across three orders of magnitude on sub-second timescales. The trEM method reported here is versatile, reproducible, and readily adaptable to a broad spectrum of fundamental questions in biology.

CSNAP, the smallest CSN subunit, modulates proteostasis through cullin-RING ubiquitin ligases.

The cullin-RING ubiquitin E3 ligase (CRL) family consists of ~250 complexes that catalyze ubiquitylation of proteins to achieve cellular regulation. All CRLs are inhibited by the COP9 signalosome complex (CSN) through both enzymatic (deneddylation) and nonenzymatic (steric) mechanisms. The relative contribution of these two mechanisms is unclear. Here, we decouple the mechanisms using CSNAP, the recently discovered ninth subunit of the CSN. We find that CSNAP reduces the affinity of CSN toward CRL complexes. Removing CSNAP does not affect deneddylation, but leads to global effects on the CRL, causing altered reproductive capacity, suppressed DNA damage response, and delayed cell cycle progression. Thus, although CSNAP is only 2% of the CSN mass, it plays a critical role in the steric regulation of CRLs by the CSN.

A cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase targets exogenous α-synuclein and inhibits Lewy body-like pathology.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurological disorder characterized by the progressive accumulation of neuronal α-synuclein (αSyn) inclusions called Lewy bodies. It is believed that Lewy bodies spread throughout the nervous system due to the cell-to-cell propagation of αSyn via cycles of secretion and uptake. Here, we investigated the internalization and intracellular accumulation of exogenous αSyn, two key steps of Lewy body pathogenesis, amplification and spreading. We found that stable αSyn fibrils substantially accumulate in different cell lines upon internalization, whereas αSyn monomers, oligomers, and dissociable fibrils do not. Our data indicate that the uptake-mediated accumulation of αSyn in a human-derived neuroblastoma cell line triggered an adaptive response that involved proteins linked to ubiquitin ligases of the S-phase kinase-associated protein 1 (SKP1), cullin-1 (Cul1), and F-box domain-containing protein (SCF) family. We found that SKP1, Cul1, and the F-box/LRR repeat protein 5 (FBXL5) colocalized and physically interacted with internalized αSyn in cultured cells. Moreover, the SCF containing the F-box protein FBXL5 (SCFFBXL5) catalyzed αSyn ubiquitination in reconstitution experiments in vitro using recombinant proteins and in cultured cells. In the human brain, SKP1 and Cul1 were recruited into Lewy bodies from brainstem and neocortex of patients with PD and related neurological disorders. In both transgenic and nontransgenic mice, intracerebral administration of exogenous αSyn fibrils triggered a Lewy body-like pathology, which was amplified by SKP1 or FBXL5 loss of function. Our data thus indicate that SCFFXBL5 regulates αSyn in vivo and that SCF ligases may constitute targets for the treatment of PD and other α-synucleinopathies.

Regulatory control of DNA end resection by Sae2 phosphorylation.

DNA end resection plays a critical function in DNA double-strand break repair pathway choice. Resected DNA ends are refractory to end-joining mechanisms and are instead channeled to homology-directed repair. Using biochemical, genetic, and imaging methods, we show that phosphorylation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Sae2 controls its capacity to promote the Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (MRX) nuclease to initiate resection of blocked DNA ends by at least two distinct mechanisms. First, DNA damage and cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation leads to Sae2 tetramerization. Second, and independently, phosphorylation of the conserved C-terminal domain of Sae2 is a prerequisite for its physical interaction with Rad50, which is also crucial to promote the MRX endonuclease. The lack of this interaction explains the phenotype of rad50S mutants defective in the processing of Spo11-bound DNA ends during meiotic recombination. Our results define how phosphorylation controls the initiation of DNA end resection and therefore the choice between the key DNA double-strand break repair mechanisms.

Opposing effects of cancer-type-specific SPOP mutants on BET protein degradation and sensitivity to BET inhibitors.

It is generally assumed that recurrent mutations within a given cancer driver gene elicit similar drug responses. Cancer genome studies have identified recurrent but divergent missense mutations affecting the substrate-recognition domain of the ubiquitin ligase adaptor SPOP in endometrial and prostate cancers. The therapeutic implications of these mutations remain incompletely understood. Here we analyzed changes in the ubiquitin landscape induced by endometrial cancer-associated SPOP mutations and identified BRD2, BRD3 and BRD4 proteins (BETs) as SPOP-CUL3 substrates that are preferentially degraded by endometrial cancer-associated SPOP mutants. The resulting reduction of BET protein levels sensitized cancer cells to BET inhibitors. Conversely, prostate cancer-specific SPOP mutations resulted in impaired degradation of BETs, promoting their resistance to pharmacologic inhibition. These results uncover an oncogenomics paradox, whereby mutations mapping to the same domain evoke opposing drug susceptibilities. Specifically, we provide a molecular rationale for the use of BET inhibitors to treat patients with endometrial but not prostate cancer who harbor SPOP mutations.

Cortical dynamics during cell motility are regulated by CRL3(KLHL21) E3 ubiquitin ligase.

Directed cell movement involves spatial and temporal regulation of the cortical microtubule (Mt) and actin networks to allow focal adhesions (FAs) to assemble at the cell front and disassemble at the rear. Mts are known to associate with FAs, but the mechanisms coordinating their dynamic interactions remain unknown. Here we show that the CRL3(KLHL21) E3 ubiquitin ligase promotes cell migration by controlling Mt and FA dynamics at the cell cortex. Indeed, KLHL21 localizes to FA structures preferentially at the leading edge, and in complex with Cul3, ubiquitylates EB1 within its microtubule-interacting CH-domain. Cells lacking CRL3(KLHL21) activity or expressing a non-ubiquitylatable EB1 mutant protein are unable to migrate and exhibit strong defects in FA dynamics, lamellipodia formation and cortical plasticity. Our study thus reveals an important mechanism to regulate cortical dynamics during cell migration that involves ubiquitylation of EB1 at focal adhesions.

Cullin3-KLHL15 ubiquitin ligase mediates CtIP protein turnover to fine-tune DNA-end resection.

Human CtIP is a decisive factor in DNA double-strand break repair pathway choice by enabling DNA-end resection, the first step that differentiates homologous recombination (HR) from non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ). To coordinate appropriate and timely execution of DNA-end resection, CtIP function is tightly controlled by multiple protein-protein interactions and post-translational modifications. Here, we identify the Cullin3 E3 ligase substrate adaptor Kelch-like protein 15 (KLHL15) as a new interaction partner of CtIP and show that KLHL15 promotes CtIP protein turnover via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. A tripeptide motif (FRY) conserved across vertebrate CtIP proteins is essential for KLHL15-binding; its mutation blocks KLHL15-dependent CtIP ubiquitination and degradation. Consequently, DNA-end resection is strongly attenuated in cells overexpressing KLHL15 but amplified in cells either expressing a CtIP-FRY mutant or lacking KLHL15, thus impacting the balance between HR and NHEJ. Collectively, our findings underline the key importance and high complexity of CtIP modulation for genome integrity.

Structural and kinetic analysis of the COP9-Signalosome activation and the cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase deneddylation cycle.

The COP9-Signalosome (CSN) regulates cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase (CRL) activity and assembly by cleaving Nedd8 from cullins. Free CSN is autoinhibited, and it remains unclear how it becomes activated. We combine structural and kinetic analyses to identify mechanisms that contribute to CSN activation and Nedd8 deconjugation. Both CSN and neddylated substrate undergo large conformational changes upon binding, with important roles played by the N-terminal domains of Csn2 and Csn4 and the RING domain of Rbx1 in enabling formation of a high affinity, fully active complex. The RING domain is crucial for deneddylation, and works in part through conformational changes involving insert-2 of Csn6. Nedd8 deconjugation and re-engagement of the active site zinc by the autoinhibitory Csn5 glutamate-104 diminish affinity for Cul1/Rbx1 by ~100-fold, resulting in its rapid ejection from the active site. Together, these mechanisms enable a dynamic deneddylation-disassembly cycle that promotes rapid remodeling of the cellular CRL network.

A SPOPL/Cullin-3 ubiquitin ligase complex regulates endocytic trafficking by targeting EPS15 at endosomes.

Cullin-3 (CUL3)-based ubiquitin ligases regulate endosome maturation and trafficking of endocytic cargo to lysosomes in mammalian cells. Here, we report that these functions depend on SPOPL, a substrate-specific CUL3 adaptor. We find that SPOPL associates with endosomes and is required for both the formation of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and the endocytic host cell entry of influenza A virus. In SPOPL-depleted cells, endosomes are enlarged and fail to acquire intraluminal vesicles (ILVs). We identify a critical substrate ubiquitinated by CUL3-SPOPL as EPS15, an endocytic adaptor that also associates with the ESCRT-0 complex members HRS and STAM on endosomes. Indeed, EPS15 is ubiquitinated in a SPOPL-dependent manner, and accumulates with HRS in cells lacking SPOPL. Together, our data indicates that a CUL3-SPOPL E3 ubiquitin ligase complex regulates endocytic trafficking and MVB formation by ubiquitinating and degrading EPS15 at endosomes, thereby influencing influenza A virus infection as well as degradation of EGFR and other EPS15 targets.

A mechanism for the suppression of homologous recombination in G1 cells.

DNA repair by homologous recombination is highly suppressed in G1 cells to ensure that mitotic recombination occurs solely between sister chromatids. Although many homologous recombination factors are cell-cycle regulated, the identity of the events that are both necessary and sufficient to suppress recombination in G1 cells is unknown. Here we report that the cell cycle controls the interaction of BRCA1 with PALB2-BRCA2 to constrain BRCA2 function to the S/G2 phases in human cells. We found that the BRCA1-interaction site on PALB2 is targeted by an E3 ubiquitin ligase composed of KEAP1, a PALB2-interacting protein, in complex with cullin-3 (CUL3)-RBX1 (ref. 6). PALB2 ubiquitylation suppresses its interaction with BRCA1 and is counteracted by the deubiquitylase USP11, which is itself under cell cycle control. Restoration of the BRCA1-PALB2 interaction combined with the activation of DNA-end resection is sufficient to induce homologous recombination in G1, as measured by RAD51 recruitment, unscheduled DNA synthesis and a CRISPR-Cas9-based gene-targeting assay. We conclude that the mechanism prohibiting homologous recombination in G1 minimally consists of the suppression of DNA-end resection coupled with a multi-step block of the recruitment of BRCA2 to DNA damage sites that involves the inhibition of BRCA1-PALB2-BRCA2 complex assembly. We speculate that the ability to induce homologous recombination in G1 cells with defined factors could spur the development of gene-targeting applications in non-dividing cells.

Characterisation of the Cullin-3 mutation that causes a severe form of familial hypertension and hyperkalaemia.

Deletion of exon 9 from Cullin-3 (CUL3, residues 403-459: CUL3(Δ403-459)) causes pseudohypoaldosteronism type IIE (PHA2E), a severe form of familial hyperkalaemia and hypertension (FHHt). CUL3 binds the RING protein RBX1 and various substrate adaptors to form Cullin-RING-ubiquitin-ligase complexes. Bound to KLHL3, CUL3-RBX1 ubiquitylates WNK kinases, promoting their ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation. Since WNK kinases activate Na/Cl co-transporters to promote salt retention, CUL3 regulates blood pressure. Mutations in both KLHL3 and WNK kinases cause PHA2 by disrupting Cullin-RING-ligase formation. We report here that the PHA2E mutant, CUL3(Δ403-459), is severely compromised in its ability to ubiquitylate WNKs, possibly due to altered structural flexibility. Instead, CUL3(Δ403-459) auto-ubiquitylates and loses interaction with two important Cullin regulators: the COP9-signalosome and CAND1. A novel knock-in mouse model of CUL3(WT) (/Δ403-459) closely recapitulates the human PHA2E phenotype. These mice also show changes in the arterial pulse waveform, suggesting a vascular contribution to their hypertension not reported in previous FHHt models. These findings may explain the severity of the FHHt phenotype caused by CUL3 mutations compared to those reported in KLHL3 or WNK kinases.

Protein neddylation: beyond cullin-RING ligases.

NEDD8 (neural precursor cell expressed developmentally downregulated protein 8) is a ubiquitin-like protein that activates the largest ubiquitin E3 ligase family, the cullin-RING ligases. Many non-cullin neddylation targets have been proposed in recent years. However, overexpression of exogenous NEDD8 can trigger NEDD8 conjugation through the ubiquitylation machinery, which makes validating potential NEDD8 targets challenging. Here, we re-evaluate studies of non-cullin targets of NEDD8 in light of the current understanding of the neddylation pathway, and suggest criteria for identifying genuine neddylation substrates under homeostatic conditions. We describe the biological processes that might be regulated by non-cullin neddylation, and the utility of neddylation inhibitors for research and as potential therapies. Understanding the biological significance of non-cullin neddylation is an exciting research prospect primed to reveal fundamental insights.

Structural and biochemical characterization of the Cop9 signalosome CSN5/CSN6 heterodimer.

The Cop9 signalosome complex (CSN) regulates the functional cycle of the major E3 ubiquitin ligase family, the cullin RING E3 ubiquitin ligases (CRLs). Activated CRLs are covalently modified by the ubiquitin-like protein Nedd8 (neural precursor cell expressed developmentally down-regulated protein 8). CSN serves an essential role in myriad cellular processes by reversing this modification through the isopeptidase activity of its CSN5 subunit. CSN5 alone is inactive due to an auto-inhibited conformation of its catalytic domain. Here we report the molecular basis of CSN5 catalytic domain activation and unravel a molecular hierarchy in CSN deneddylation activity. The association of CSN5 and CSN6 MPN (for Mpr1/Pad1 N-terminal) domains activates its isopeptidase activity. The CSN5/CSN6 module, however, is inefficient in CRL deneddylation, indicating a requirement of further elements in this reaction such as other CSN subunits. A hybrid molecular model of CSN5/CSN6 provides a structural framework to explain these functional observations. Docking this model into a published CSN electron density map and using distance constraints obtained from cross-linking coupled to mass-spectrometry, we find that the C-termini of the CSN subunits could form a helical bundle in the centre of the structure. They likely play a key scaffolding role in the spatial organization of CSN and precise positioning of the dimeric MPN catalytic core.

Structural basis for a reciprocal regulation between SCF and CSN.

Skp1-Cul1-Fbox (SCF) E3 ligases are activated by ligation to the ubiquitin-like protein Nedd8, which is reversed by the deneddylating Cop9 signalosome (CSN). However, CSN also promotes SCF substrate turnover through unknown mechanisms. Through biochemical and electron microscopy analyses, we determined molecular models of CSN complexes with SCF(Skp2/Cks1) and SCF(Fbw7) and found that CSN occludes both SCF functional sites-the catalytic Rbx1-Cul1 C-terminal domain and the substrate receptor. Indeed, CSN binding prevents SCF interactions with E2 enzymes and a ubiquitination substrate, and it inhibits SCF-catalyzed ubiquitin chain formation independent of deneddylation. Importantly, CSN prevents neddylation of the bound cullin, unless binding of a ubiquitination substrate triggers SCF dissociation and neddylation. Taken together, the results provide a model for how reciprocal regulation sensitizes CSN to the SCF assembly state and inhibits a catalytically competent SCF until a ubiquitination substrate drives its own degradation by displacing CSN, thereby promoting cullin neddylation and substrate ubiquitination.

Polyubiquitin binding and cross-reactivity in the USP domain deubiquitinase USP21.

Modification of proteins by ubiquitin (Ub) and Ub-like (Ubl) modifiers regulates a variety of cellular functions. The ability of Ub to form chains of eight structurally and functionally distinct types adds further complexity to the system. Ub-specific proteases (USPs) hydrolyse polyUb chains, and some have been suggested to be cross-reactive with Ubl modifiers, such as neural precursor cell expressed, developmentally downregulated 8 (NEDD8) and interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15). Here, we report that USP21 cleaves Ub polymers, and with reduced activity also targets ISG15, but is inactive against NEDD8. A crystal structure of USP21 in complex with linear diUb aldehyde shows how USP21 interacts with polyUb through a previously unidentified second Ub- and ISG15-binding surface on the USP domain core. We also rationalize the inability of USP21 to target NEDD8 and identify differences that allow USPs to distinguish between structurally related modifications.