Stretch injury causes calpain and caspase-3 activation and necrotic and apoptotic cell death in septo-hippocampal cell cultures.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in numerous central and systemic responses that complicate interpretation of the effects of the primary mechanical trauma. For this reason, several in vitro models of mechanical cell injury have recently been developed that allow more precise control over intra- and extracellular environments than is possible in vivo. Although we recently reported that calpain and caspase-3 proteases are activated after TBI in rats, the role of calpain and/or caspase-3 has not been examined in any in vitro model of mechanical cell injury. In this investigation, varying magnitudes of rapid mechanical cell stretch were used to examine processing of the cytoskeletal protein alpha-spectrin (280 kDa) to a signature 145-kDa fragment by calpain and to the apoptotic-linked 120-kDa fragment by caspase-3 in septo-hippocampal cell cultures. Additionally, effects of stretch injury on cell viability and morphology were assayed. One hour after injury, maximal release of cytosolic lactate dehydrogenase and nuclear propidium iodide uptake were associated with peak accumulations of the calpain-specific 145-kDa fragment to alpha-spectrin at each injury level. The acute period of calpain activation (1-6 h) was associated with subpopulations of nuclear morphological alterations that appeared necrotic (hyperchromatism) or apoptotic (condensed, shrunken nuclei). In contrast, caspase-3 processing of alpha-spectrin to the apoptotic-linked 120-kDa fragment was only detected 24 h after moderate, but not mild or severe injury. The period of caspase-3 activation was predominantly associated with nuclear shrinkage, fragmentation, and apoptotic body formation characteristic of apoptosis. Results of this study indicate that rapid mechanical stretch injury to septo-hippocampal cell cultures replicates several important biochemical and morphological alterations commonly observed in vivo brain injury, although important differences were also noted.

DNA methylation analysis with respect to prenatal diagnosis of the Angelman and Prader-Willi syndromes and imprinting.

The Angelman (AS) and Prader-Willi syndromes (PWS) are clinically distinct neurobehavioural syndromes resulting from loss of maternal (AS) or paternal contributions (PWS) of imprinted genes within the chromosomal 15q11-q13 region. The molecular diagnosis of both syndromes can be made by a variety of techniques, including DNA methylation, DNA polymorphism and molecular cytogenetic analyses. DNA methylation analysis at three major loci (ZNF127, PW71 and 5' SNRPN) has been successfully used for the postnatal diagnosis of AS and PWS. Methylation analysis, in contrast to other techniques, can reliably be used to diagnose all three major molecular classes (deletion, uniparental disomy and imprinting mutation) of PWS, and three of the four major classes of AS. In this study we demonstrate that methylation analysis can also be successfully used in prenatal diagnosis, by examining specimens obtained from amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling. Correct prenatal diagnoses were obtained in 24 out of 24 samples using the 5' SNRPN locus; 4 out of 15 using the ZNF127 locus; and 10 out of 18 using the PW71 locus. Therefore, our data indicate that although the DNA methylation imprints of ZNF127 and 5' SNRPN arise in the germline and are present in brain, only 5' SNRPN maintains the imprint in tissues suitable for the prenatal diagnosis of AS and PWS.

A novel imprinted gene, encoding a RING zinc-finger protein, and overlapping antisense transcript in the Prader-Willi syndrome critical region.

We describe a complex imprinted locus in chromosome 15q11-q13 that encodes two genes, ZNF127 and ZNF127AS. The ZNF127 gene encodes a protein with a RING (C3HC4) zinc-finger and multiple C3H zinc-finger motifs, the former being closely related to a protein from variola major virus, the smallpox etiological agent. These motifs allow prediction of ZNF127 function as a ribonucleoprotein. The intronless ZNF127 gene is expressed ubiquitously, but the entire coding sequence and 5' CpG island overlaps a second gene, ZNF127AS, that is transcribed from the antisense strand with a different transcript size and pattern of expression. Allele-specific analysis shows that ZNF127 is expressed only from the paternal allele. Consistent with this expression pattern, in the brain the ZNF127 5' CpG island is completely unmethylated on the paternal allele but methylated on the maternal allele. Analyses of adult testis, sperm and fetal oocytes demonstrates a gametic methylation imprint with unmethylated paternal germ cells. Recent findings indicate that ZNF127 is part of the coordinately regulated imprinted domain affected in Prader-Willi syndrome patients with imprinting mutations. Therefore, ZNF127 and ZNF127AS are novel imprinted genes that may be associated with some of the clinical features of the polygenic Prader-Willi syndrome.

Genomic imprinting: potential function and mechanisms revealed by the Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes.

The Prader-Willi (PWS) and Angelman (AS) syndromes are two clinically distinct syndromes which result from lack of expression of imprinted genes within chromosome 15q11-q13. These two syndromes result from 15q11-q13 deletions, chromosome 15 uniparental disomy (UPD), imprinting centre mutations and, for AS, probable mutations in a single gene. The differential phenotype results from a paternal genetic deficiency in PWS patients and a maternal genetic deficiency in AS patients. Within 15q11-q13, four genes (SNRPN, IPW, ZNF127, FNZ127) and two expressed sequence tags (PAR1 and PAR5) have been found to be expressed only from the paternally inherited chromosome, and therefore all must be considered candidate genes involved in the pathogenesis of PWS. A candidate AS gene (UBE3A) has very recently been identified. The mechanisms of imprinted gene expression are not yet understood, but it is clear that DNA methylation is involved in both somatic cell expression and inheritance of the imprint. The presence of DNA methylation imprints that distinguish the paternally and maternally inherited alleles is a common characteristic of all known imprinted genes which have been studied extensively, including SNRPN and ZNF127. Recently, several PWS and AS patients have been found that have microdeletions in a region upstream of the SNRPN gene referred to as the imprinting centre, or IC. Paternal IC deletions in PWS patients and maternal IC deletions in AS patients result in uniparental DNA methylation and uniparental gene expression at biparentally inherited loci. The IC is a novel genetic element which controls initial resetting of the parental imprint in the germline for all imprinted gene expression over a 1.5-2.5 Mb region within chromosome 15q11-q13.

Clinical spectrum and molecular diagnosis of Angelman and Prader-Willi syndrome patients with an imprinting mutation.

Recent studies have identified a new class of Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) and Angelman syndrome (AS) patients who have biparental inheritance, but neither the typical deletion nor uniparental disomy (UPD) or translocation. However, these patients have uniparental DNA methylation throughout 15q11-q13, and thus appear to have a mutation in the imprinting process for this region. Here we describe detailed clinical findings of five AS imprinting mutation patients (three families) and two PWS imprinting mutation patients (one new family). All these patients have essentially the classical clinical phenotype for the respective syndrome, except that the incidence of microcephaly is lower in imprinting mutation AS patients than in deletion AS patients. Furthermore, imprinting mutation AS and PWS patients do not typically have hypopigmentation, which is commonly found in patients with the usual large deletion. Molecular diagnosis of these cases is initially achieved by DNA methylation analyses of the DN34/ZNF127, PW71 (D15S63), and SNRPN loci. The latter two probes have clear advantages in the simple molecular diagnostic analysis of PWS and AS patients with an imprinting mutation, as has been found for typical deletion or UPD PWS and AS cases. With the recent finding of inherited microdeletions in PWS and AS imprinting mutation families, our studies define a new class of these two syndromes. The clinical and molecular identification of these PWS and AS patients has important genetic counseling consequences.

Familial cryptic translocation resulting in Angelman syndrome:implications for imprinting or location of the Angelman gene?

Angelman syndrome (AS) is associated with a loss of maternal genetic information, which typically occurs as a result of a deletion at 15q11-q13 or paternal uniparental disomy of chromosome 15. We report a patient with AS as a result of an unbalanced cryptic translocation whose breakpoint, at 15q11.2, falls within this region. The proband was diagnosed clinically as having Angelman syndrome, but without a detectable cytogenetic deletion, by using high-resolution G-banding. FISH detected a deletion of D15S11 (IR4-3R), with an intact GABRB3 locus. Subsequent studies of the proband's mother and sister detected a cryptic reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 14 and 15 with the breakpoint being between SNRPN and D15S10 (3- 21). The proband was found to have inherited an unbalanced form, being monosomic from 15pter through SNRPN and trisomic for 14pter to 14q11.2. DNA methylation studies showed that the proband had a paternal-only DNA methylation pattern at SNRPN, D15S63 (PW71), and ZNF127. The mother and unaffected sister, both having the balanced translocation, demonstrated normal DNA methylation patterns at all three loci. These data suggest that the gene for AS most likely lies proximal to D15S10, in contrast to the previously published position, although a less likely possibility is that the maternally inherited imprinting center acts in trans in the unaffected balanced translocation carrier sister.

Gene structure, DNA methylation, and imprinted expression of the human SNRPN gene.

The human SNRPN (small nuclear ribonucleoprotein polypeptide N) gene is one of a gene family that encode proteins involved in pre-mRNA splicing and maps to the smallest deletion region involved in the Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) within chromosome 15q11-q13. Paternal only expression of SNRPN has previously been demonstrated by use of cell lines from PWS patients (maternal allele only) and Angelman syndrome (AS) patients (paternal allele only). We have characterized two previously unidentified 5' exons of the SNRPN gene and demonstrate that exons -1 and 0 are included in the full-length transcript. This gene is expressed in a wide range of somatic tissues and at high, approximately equal levels in all regions of the brain. Both the first exon of SNRPN (exon -1) and the putative transcription start site are embedded within a CpG island. This CpG island is extensively methylated on the repressed maternal allele and is unmethylated on the expressed paternal allele, in a wide range of fetal and adult somatic cells. This provides a quick and highly reliable diagnostic assay for PWS and AS, which is based on DNA-methylation analysis that has been tested on > 100 patients in a variety of tissues. Conversely, several CpG sites approximately 22 kb downstream of the transcription start site in intron 5 are preferentially methylated on the expressed paternal allele in somatic tissues and male germ cells, whereas these same sites are unmethylated in fetal oocytes. These findings are consistent with a key role for DNA methylation in the imprinted inheritance and subsequent gene expression of the human SNRPN gene.

Functional imprinting and epigenetic modification of the human SNRPN gene.

The SNRPN gene encodes a small nuclear ribonucleoprotein subunit, SmN, thought to be involved in splicing of pre-mRNA. A closely related protein, SmB/B', is constitutively expressed in all tissues except the brain, where SmN is predominantly expressed. The mouse homolog of the SNRPN gene has been shown to be functionally imprinted in mouse brain, being expressed only from the paternally derived chromosome. SNRPN has been mapped to human chromosome 15q11-q13 within the shortest region of deletion overlap for the Prader-Willi syndrome. We have now demonstrated functional imprinting of the human SNRPN gene using reverse transcription followed by the polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). No expression was observed in cultured skin fibroblasts of Prader-Willi patients, but was found in all Angelman patients and normal controls examined. We have also demonstrated a parent-specific DNA methylation imprint within intron 5 of the SNRPN gene, which suggests an epigenetic mechanism by which parent-specific expression of this gene might be inherited. Our findings indicate that SNRPN is expressed only from the paternally derived chromosome 15 in humans and therefore may fulfill one major criterion for being involved in the pathogenesis of the Prader-Willi syndrome.

Modification of 15q11-q13 DNA methylation imprints in unique Angelman and Prader-Willi patients.

The clearest example of genomic imprinting in humans comes from studies of the Angelman (AS) and Prader-Willi (PWS) syndromes. Although these are clinically distinct disorders, both typically result from a loss of the same chromosomal region, 15q11-q13. AS usually results from either a maternal deletion of this region, or paternal uniparental disomy (UPD; both chromosomes 15 inherited from the father). PWS results from paternal deletion of 15q11-q13 or maternal UPD of chromosome 15. We have recently described a parent-specific DNA methylation imprint in a gene at the D15S9 locus (new gene symbol, ZNF127), within the 15q11-q13 region, that identifies AS and PWS patients with either a deletion or UPD. Here we describe an AS sibship and three PWS patients in which chromosome 15 rearrangements alter the methylation state at ZNF127, even though this locus is not directly involved in the rearrangement. Parent-specific DNA methylation imprints are also altered at ZNF127 and D15S63 (another locus with a parent-specific methylation imprint) in an AS sibship which have no detectable deletion or UPD of chromosome 15. These unique patients may provide insight into the imprinting process that occurs in proximal chromosome 15 in humans.

A DNA methylation imprint, determined by the sex of the parent, distinguishes the Angelman and Prader-Willi syndromes.

The Angelman (AS) and Prader-Willi (PWS) syndromes are two clinically distinct disorders that are caused by a differential parental origin of chromosome 15q11-q13 deletions. Both also can result from uniparental disomy (the inheritance of both copies of chromosome 15 from only one parent). Loss of the paternal copy of 15q11-q13, whether by deletion or maternal uniparental disomy, leads to PWS, whereas a maternal deletion or paternal uniparental disomy leads to AS. The differential modification in expression of certain mammalian genes dependent upon parental origin is known as genomic imprinting, and AS and PWS represent the best examples of this phenomenon in humans. Although the molecular mechanisms of genomic imprinting are unknown, DNA methylation has been postulated to play a role in the imprinting process. Using restriction digests with the methyl-sensitive enzymes HpaII and HhaI and probing Southern blots with several genomic and cDNA probes, we have systematically scanned segments of 15q11-q13 for DNA methylation differences between patients with PWS (20 deletion, 20 uniparental disomy) and those with AS (26 deletion, 1 uniparental disomy). The highly evolutionarily conserved cDNA, DN34, identifies distinct differences in DNA methylation of the parental alleles at the D15S9 locus. Thus, DNA methylation may be used as a reliable, postnatal diagnostic tool in these syndromes. Furthermore, our findings demonstrate the first known epigenetic event, dependent on the sex of the parent, for a locus within 15q11-q13. We propose that expression of the gene detected by DN34 is regulated by genomic imprinting and, therefore, that it is a candidate gene for PWS and/or AS.