Molecular origin of cancer: catechol estrogen-3,4-quinones as endogenous tumor initiators.

Cancer is a disease that begins with mutation of critical genes: oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Our research on carcinogenic aromatic hydrocarbons indicates that depurinating hydrocarbon-DNA adducts generate oncogenic mutations found in mouse skin papillomas (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:10422, 1995). These mutations arise by mis-replication of unrepaired apurinic sites derived from the loss of depurinating adducts. This relationship led us to postulate that oxidation of the carcinogenic 4-hydroxy catechol estrogens (CE) of estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2) to catechol estrogen-3,4-quinones (CE-3, 4-Q) results in electrophilic intermediates that covalently bind to DNA to form depurinating adducts. The resultant apurinic sites in critical genes can generate mutations that may initiate various human cancers. The noncarcinogenic 2-hydroxy CE are oxidized to CE-2,3-Q and form only stable DNA adducts. As reported here, the CE-3,4-Q were bound to DNA in vitro to form the depurinating adduct 4-OHE1(E2)-1(alpha,beta)-N7Gua at 59-213 micromol/mol DNA-phosphate whereas the level of stable adducts was 0.1 micromol/mol DNA-phosphate. In female Sprague-Dawley rats treated by intramammillary injection of E2-3,4-Q (200 nmol) at four mammary glands, the mammary tissue contained 2.3 micromol 4-OHE2-1(alpha, beta)-N7Gua/molDNA-phosphate. When 4-OHE1(E2) were activated by horseradish peroxidase, lactoperoxidase, or cytochrome P450, 87-440 micromol of 4-OHE1(E2)-1(alpha, beta)-N7Gua was formed. After treatment with 4-OHE2, rat mammary tissue contained 1.4 micromol of adduct/mol DNA-phosphate. In each case, the level of stable adducts was negligible. These results, complemented by other data, strongly support the hypothesis that CE-3,4-Q are endogenous tumor initiators.

Synthesis of depurinating DNA adducts formed by one-electron oxidation of 7H-dibenzo[c,g]carbazole and identification of these adducts after activation with rat liver microsomes.

It is hypothesized that 7H-dibenzo[c,g]carbazole (DBC) is metabolically activated by one-electron oxidation in accordance with its propensity to be easily oxidized to its radical cation. Iodine oxidation of DBC produces a radical cation that subsequently binds to nucleophilic groups of dG or Ade. Oxidation of DBC in the presence of dG products three adducts: DBC-5-N7Gua, DBC-6-N7Gua, and DBC-6-C8Gua, whereas in the presence of Ade, four adducts are obtained: DBC-5-N7Ade, DBC-5-N3Ade, DBC-5-N1Ade, and DBC-6-N3Ade. Formation of these adducts demonstrates that the DBC radical cation reacts at C-5 or C-6 with the reactive nucleophiles N-7 and C-8 of dG and N-7, N-3, and N-1 of Ade. Formation DNA adducts by DBC was studied by using horesradish peroxidase or 3-methylcholanthrene-induced rat liver microsomes for activation. Identification of the biologically-formed depurinating adducts was achieved by comparison of their retention times on HPLC in two different solvent systems and by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry. Quantitation of the adducts formed by rat liver microsomes shows that 96% are depurinating adducts, DBC-5-N7Gua (11%), DBC-6-N7Gua (32%), and DBC-5-N7Ade (53%), and 4% are unidentified stable adducts. Activation of DBC by horseradish peroxidase affords 32% stable unidentified adducts and 68% depurinating adducts: 19% DBC-5-N7Gua, 13% DBC-6-N7Gua, 27% DBC-5-N7Ade, and 9% DBC-5-N3Ade. Thus, activation of DBC by cytochrome P450 predominantly forms depurinating adducts by one-electron oxidation.