MiR-210 promotes a hypoxic phenotype and increases radioresistance in human lung cancer cell lines.

The resistance of hypoxic cells to radiotherapy and chemotherapy is a major problem in the treatment of cancer. Recently, an additional mode of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-dependent transcriptional regulation, involving modulation of a specific set of micro RNAs (miRNAs), including miR-210, has emerged. We have recently shown that HIF-1 induction of miR-210 also stabilizes HIF-1 through a positive regulatory loop. Therefore, we hypothesized that by stabilizing HIF-1 in normoxia, miR-210 may protect cancer cells from radiation. We developed a non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC)-derived cell line (A549) stably expressing miR-210 (pmiR-210) or a control miRNA (pmiR-Ctl). The miR-210-expressing cells showed a significant stabilization of HIF-1 associated with mitochondrial defects and a glycolytic phenotype. Cells were subjected to radiation levels ranging from 0 to 10 Gy in normoxia and hypoxia. Cells expressing miR-210 in normoxia had the same level of radioresistance as control cells in hypoxia. Under hypoxia, pmiR-210 cells showed a low mortality rate owing to a decrease in apoptosis, with an ability to grow even at 10 Gy. This miR-210 phenotype was reproduced in another NSCLC cell line (H1975) and in HeLa cells. We have established that radioresistance was independent of p53 and cell cycle status. In addition, we have shown that genomic double-strand breaks (DSBs) foci disappear faster in pmiR-210 than in pmiR-Ctl cells, suggesting that miR-210 expression promotes a more efficient DSB repair. Finally, HIF-1 invalidation in pmiR-210 cells removed the radioresistant phenotype, showing that this mechanism is dependent on HIF-1. In conclusion, miR-210 appears to be a component of the radioresistance of hypoxic cancer cells. Given the high stability of most miRNAs, this advantage could be used by tumor cells in conditions where reoxygenation has occurred and suggests that strategies targeting miR-210 could enhance tumor radiosensitization.

Metformin inhibits melanoma development through autophagy and apoptosis mechanisms.

Metformin is the most widely used antidiabetic drug because of its proven efficacy and limited secondary effects. Interestingly, recent studies have reported that metformin can block the growth of different tumor types. Here, we show that metformin exerts antiproliferative effects on melanoma cells, whereas normal human melanocytes are resistant to these metformin-induced effects. To better understand the basis of this antiproliferative effect of metformin in melanoma, we characterized the sequence of events underlying metformin action. We showed that 24 h metformin treatment induced a cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 phases, while after 72 h, melanoma cells underwent autophagy as demonstrated by electron microscopy, immunochemistry, and by quantification of the autolysosome-associated LC3 and Beclin1 proteins. In addition, 96 h post metformin treatment we observed robust apoptosis of melanoma cells. Interestingly, inhibition of autophagy by knocking down LC3 or ATG5 decreased the extent of apoptosis, and suppressed the antiproliferative effect of metformin on melanoma cells, suggesting that apoptosis is a consequence of autophagy. The relevance of these observations were confirmed in vivo, as we showed that metformin treatment impaired the melanoma tumor growth in mice, and induced autophagy and apoptosis markers. Taken together, our data suggest that metformin has an important impact on melanoma growth, and may therefore be beneficial in patients with melanoma.

miR-210 is overexpressed in late stages of lung cancer and mediates mitochondrial alterations associated with modulation of HIF-1 activity.

Following the identification of a set of hypoxia-regulated microRNAs (miRNAs), recent studies have highlighted the importance of miR-210 and of its transcriptional regulation by the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1). We report here that miR-210 is overexpressed at late stages of non-small cell lung cancer. Expression of miR-210 in lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells caused an alteration of cell viability associated with induction of caspase-3/7 activity. miR-210 induced a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and the apparition of an aberrant mitochondrial phenotype. The expression profiling of cells overexpressing miR-210 revealed a specific signature characterized by enrichment for transcripts related to 'cell death' and 'mitochondrial dysfunction', including several subunits of the electron transport chain (ETC) complexes I and II. The transcript coding for one of these ETC components, SDHD, subunit D of succinate dehydrogenase complex (SDH), was validated as a bona fide miR-210 target. Moreover, SDHD knockdown mimicked miR-210-mediated mitochondrial alterations. Finally, miR-210-dependent targeting of SDHD was able to activate HIF-1, in line with previous studies linking loss-of-function SDH mutations to HIF-1 activation. miR-210 can thus regulate mitochondrial function by targeting key ETC component genes with important consequences on cell metabolism, survival and modulation of HIF-1 activity. These observations help explain contradictory data regarding miR-210 expression and its putative function in solid tumors.

Induction of different types of cell death after normothermic liver ischemia-reperfusion.

Normothermic liver ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) may induce hepatocellular autophagy, apoptosis, and necrosis. The aim of this study was to investigate these three types of cell death in normothermic liver I-R in rats. A segmental normothermic ischemia of the liver was induced for 120 minutes. Liver autophagy was evaluated by transmission electron microscopy and LC3 (Light Chain 3) immunohistochemical studies. Liver apoptosis was assessed by FLIVO (FLuorescence in vIVO) and TUNEL (TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling) assays. Liver necrosis was determined by optical microscopic examination. Autophagy was increased in ischemic liver lobes at 6 hours after reperfusion, compared with nonischemic lobes. Fluorescence microscopy showed in situ caspase-3 and -7 specific activity to be increased in ischemic liver lobes after 6 hours of reperfusion, compared with nonischemic lobes. Quantitative analysis of apoptotic cells evaluated by the TUNEL method showed a clearly significant increase in ischemic liver lobes at 6 hours after reperfusion, compared with nonischemic lobes. Necrotic cell death was significantly increased in ischemic liver lobes at 6 hours after reperfusion, compared with nonischemic lobes (P < .005). In conclusion, 120 minutes normothermic liver I-R resulted in increased autophagic, apoptotic and necrotic cell death.

Inheritance of an epigenetic change in the mouse: a new role for RNA.

Hereditary epigenetic variation, initially recognized and studied extensively in plants, had not been reported in mammals until recently. We have now identified the Kit locus as the first example of a paramutable gene of the mouse. Kit(+/+) homozygotes born from Kit(tm1Alf)(/+) heterozygotes maintain and transmit to their progeny the white-spotted phenotype characteristic of the mutant heterozygote. Our observation of unusual amounts of RNA in the sperm of the paramutated (Kit*) males had led us to consider the possibility of RNA-mediated inheritance. A role for RNA was supported further by the efficient establishment of the epigenetic modification following microinjection in one-cell embryos of either sperm RNA of the paramutated males or of the Kit-specific microRNAs miR-221 and -222. In this article, we describe the phenotypes associated with the wild-type genome in the Kit* paramutated animals. Paramutation may be considered to be one possibility of epigenetic modification in the case of familial disease predispositions that are not fully accounted for by Mendelian analysis.

Membrane curvature and the control of GTP hydrolysis in Arf1 during COPI vesicle formation.

The GTP switch of the small G-protein Arf1 (ADP-ribosylation factor 1) on lipid membranes promotes the polymerization of the COPI (coat protein complex I) coat, which acts as a membrane deforming shell to form transport vesicles. Real-time measurements for coat assembly on liposomes gives insights into how the GTPase cycle of Arf1 is coupled in time with the polymerization of the COPI coat and the resulting membrane deformation. One key parameter seems to be the membrane curvature. Arf-GAP1 (where GAP stands for GTPase-activating protein), which promotes GTP hydrolysis in the Arf1-COPI complex is highly sensitive to lipid packing. Its activity on Arf1-GTP increases by two orders of magnitude as the diameter of the liposomes approaches that of authentic transport vesicles (60 nm). This suggests that during membrane budding, Arf1-GTP molecules are progressively eliminated from the coated area where the membrane curvature is positive, but are protected from Arf-GAP1 at the bud neck due to the negative curvature of this region. As a result, the coat should be stable as long as the bud remains attached and should disassemble as soon as membrane fission occurs.

Internalization of Bordetella pertussis adenylate cyclase-haemolysin into endocytic vesicles contributes to macrophage cytotoxicity.

Bordetella pertussis adenylate cyclase-haemolysin is a critical virulence factor in the murine model of intranasal infection, where it is required for several pathological effects, including macrophage apoptosis. Based on biochemical and immunological properties, it was proposed that the toxin was delivered directly to the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells without trafficking through the endocytic pathway. In the present study, we analysed the cellular distribution of the adenylate cyclase-haemolysin during intoxication of macrophages. We showed that, shortly after its initial binding to the plasma membrane of macrophages, the toxin gains access to intracellular compartments that become progressively positive for the endosomal marker transferrin, but not for the lysosomal membrane protein CD107a/Lamp1. Importantly, the vesicular trafficking of the adenylate cyclase-haemolysin appears to be required for its ability to induce macrophage death. Inhibitors of actin polymerization and of macropinocytosis, as well as depletion of plasma membrane cholesterol and disruption of the Golgi network, reduce the toxin's ability to kill macrophages. Altogether, these results suggest that internalization of the adenylate cyclase-haemolysin into endocytic vesicles, at least partly through macropinocytosis, contributes to cytotoxicity.

Identification of the Helicobacter pylori anti-sigma28 factor.

Flagellar motility is essential for colonization of the human gastric mucosa by Helicobacter pylori. The flagellar filament is composed of two subunits, FlaA and FlaB. Transcription of the genes encoding these proteins is controlled by the sigma28 and sigma54 factors of RNA polymerase respectively. The expression of flagellar genes is regulated, but no sigma28-specific effector was identified. It was also unclear whether H. pylori possessed a checkpoint for flagellar synthesis, and no gene encoding an anti-sigma28 factor, FlgM, could be identified by sequence similarity searches. To investigate the sigma28-dependent regulation, a new approach based on genomic data was used. Two-hybrid screening with the H. pylori proteins identified a protein of unknown function (HP1122) interacting with the sigma28 factor and defined the C-terminal part of HP1122 (residues 48-76) as the interaction domain. HP1122 interacts with region 4 of sigma28 and prevents its association with the beta-region of H. pylori RNA polymerase. Thus, HP1122 presented the characteristics of an anti-sigma28 factor. This was confirmed in H. pylori by RNA dot-blot hybridization and electron microscopy. The level of sigma28-dependent flaA transcription was higher in a HP1122-deficient strain and was decreased by the overproduction of HP1122. The overproduction of HP1122 also resulted in H. pylori cells with highly truncated flagella. These results demonstrate that HP1122 is the H. pylori anti-sigma28 factor, FlgM, a major regulator of flagellum assembly. Potential anti-sigma28 factors were identified in Campylobacter jejuni, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Thermotoga maritima by sequence homology with the C-terminal region of HP1122.

Nonenveloped nucleocapsids of hepatitis C virus in the serum of infected patients.

One of the characteristics of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the high incidence of persistent infection. HCV core protein, in addition to forming the viral nucleocapsid, has multiple regulatory functions in host-cell transcription, apoptosis, cell transformation, and lipid metabolism and may play a role in suppressing host immune response. This protein is thought to be present in the bloodstream of the infected host as the nucleocapsid of infectious, enveloped virions. This study provides evidence that viral particles with the physicochemical, morphological, and antigenic properties of nonenveloped HCV nucleocapsids are present in the plasma of HCV-infected individuals. These particles have a buoyant density of 1.32 to 1.34 g/ml in CsCl, are heterogeneous in size (with predominance of particles 38 to 43 or 54 to 62 nm in diameter on electron microscopy), and express on their surface epitopes located in amino acids 24 to 68 of the core protein. Similar nucleocapsid-like particles are also produced in insect cells infected with recombinant baculovirus bearing cDNA for structural HCV proteins. HCV core particles isolated from plasma were used to generate anti-core monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). These MAbs stained HCV core in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes from experimentally infected chimpanzees in the acute phase of the infection. These chimpanzees had concomitantly HCV core antigen in serum. These findings suggest that overproduction of nonenveloped nucleocapsids and their release into the bloodstream are properties of HCV morphogenesis. The presence of circulating cores in serum and accumulation of the core protein in liver cells during the early phase of infection may contribute to the persistence of HCV and its many immunopathological effects in the infected host.

A monoclonal antibody against the immunodominant epitope of the ribosomal P2beta protein of Trypanosoma cruzi interacts with the human beta 1-adrenergic receptor.

Monoclonal antibodies were raised against a recombinant ribosomal P2beta protein of Trypanosoma cruzi. One of these reacted with the C terminus of this protein (peptide R13, EEEDDDMGFGLFD) and epitope mapping confirmed that this epitope was the same as the one defined by the serum of immunized mice, and similar to the previously described chronic Chagas' heart disease (cChHD) anti-P epitope. Western blotting showed that the monoclonal antibody recognized the parasite ribosomal P proteins, as well as the human ribosomal P proteins. Electron microscopy showed that it stained different structures in parasite and human cells. Interestingly, surface plasmon resonance measurements indicated that the affinity for the parasite ribosomal P protein epitope (R13) was five times higher than for its human counterpart (peptide H13, EESDDDMGFGLFD). Since the human epitope contained an acidic region (EESDD) similar to the AESDE peptide recognized by cChHD patients in the second extra-cellular loop of the human beta1-adrenergic receptor, the biological activity of the antibody was assessed on neonatal rat cardiomyocytes in culture. The monoclonal antibody had an agonist-like effect. These results, together with the fact that the monoclonal reacted in Western blots with the different isoforms of the heart beta1-adrenergic receptor, confirm the possible pathogenic role of antibodies against the parasite ribosomal P protein based on their cross-reaction with the human beta1-adrenergic receptor.

A transgenic model for listeriosis: role of internalin in crossing the intestinal barrier.

Listeria monocytogenes is responsible for severe food-borne infections, but the mechanisms by which bacteria cross the intestinal barrier are unknown. Listeria monocytogenes expresses a surface protein, internalin, that interacts with a host receptor, E-cadherin, to promote entry into human epithelial cells. Murine E-cadherin, in contrast to guinea pig E-cadherin, does not interact with internalin, excluding the mouse as a model for addressing internalin function in vivo. In guinea pigs and transgenic mice expressing human E-cadherin, internalin was found to mediate invasion of enterocytes and crossing of the intestinal barrier. These results illustrate how relevant animal models for human infections can be generated.

Characterization of AfaE adhesins produced by extraintestinal and intestinal human Escherichia coli isolates: PCR assays for detection of Afa adhesins that do or do not recognize Dr blood group antigens.

Operons of the afa family are expressed by pathogenic Escherichia coli strains associated with intestinal and extraintestinal infections in humans and animals. The recently demonstrated heterogeneity of these operons (L. Lalioui, M. Jouve, P. Gounon, and C. Le Bouguénec, Infect. Immun. 67:5048-5059, 1999) was used to develop a new PCR assay for detecting all the operons of the afa family with a single genetic tool. This PCR approach was validated by investigating three collections of human E. coli isolates originating from the stools of infants with diarrhea (88 strains), the urine of patients with pyelonephritis (97 strains), and the blood of cancer patients (115 strains). The results obtained with this single test and those previously obtained with several PCR assays were closely correlated. The AfaE adhesins encoded by the afa operons are variable, particularly with respect to the primary sequence encoded by the afaE gene. The receptor binding specificities have not been determined for all of these adhesins; some recognize the Dr blood group antigen (Afa/Dr(+) adhesins) on the human decay-accelerating factor (DAF) as a receptor, and others (Afa/Dr(-) adhesins) do not. Thus, the afa operons detected in this study were characterized by subtyping the afaE gene using specific PCRs. In addition, the DAF-binding capacities of as-yet-uncharacterized AfaE adhesins were tested by various cellular approaches. The afaE8 subtype (Afa/Dr(-) adhesin) was found to predominate in afa-positive isolates from sepsis patients (75%); it was frequent in afa-positive pyelonephritis E. coli (55.5%) and absent from diarrhea-associated strains. In contrast, Afa/Dr(+) strains (regardless of the afaE subtype) were associated with both diarrhea (100%) and extraintestinal infections (44 and 25% in afa-positive pyelonephritis and sepsis strains, respectively). These data suggest that there is an association between the subtype of AfaE adhesin and the physiological site of the infection caused by afa-positive strains.

Structure and composition of the Shigella flexneri "needle complex", a part of its type III secreton.

Type III secretion systems (TTSSs or secretons), essential virulence determinants of many Gram-negative bacteria, serve to translocate proteins directly from the bacteria into the host cytoplasm. Electron microscopy (EM) indicates that the TTSSs of Shigella flexneri are composed of: (1) an external needle; (2) a transmembrane domain; and (3) a cytoplasmic bulb. EM analysis of purified and negatively stained parts 1, 2 and a portion of 3 of the TTSS, together termed the "needle complex" (NC), produced an average image at 17 A resolution in which a base, an outer ring and a needle, inserted through the ring into the base, could be discerned. This analysis and cryoEM images of NCs indicated that the needle and base contain a central 2-3 nm canal. Five major NC components, MxiD, MxiG, MxiJ, MxiH and MxiI, were identified by N-terminal sequencing. MxiG and MxiJ are predicted to be inner membrane proteins and presumably form the base. MxiD is predicted to be an outer membrane protein and to form the outer ring. MxiH and MxiI are small hydrophilic proteins. Mutants lacking either of these proteins formed needleless secretons and were unable to secrete Ipa proteins. As MxiH was present in NCs in large molar excess, we propose that it is the major needle component. MxiI may cap at the external needle tip.

Variations in biological features of West Nile viruses.

Pathological findings in humans, horses, and birds with West Nile (WN) encephalitis show neuronal degeneration and necrosis in the central nervous system (CNS), with diffuse inflammation. The mechanisms of WN viral penetration of the CNS and pathophysiology of the encephalitis remain largely unknown. Since 1996, several epizootics involving hundreds of humans, horses, and thousands of wild and domestic bird cases of encephalitis and mortality have been reported in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Russia, and the USA (see specific chapters in this issue). However, biological and molecular markers of virus virulence should be characterized to assess whether novel strains with increased virulence are responsible for this recent proliferation of outbreaks.

IpgD, a protein secreted by the type III secretion machinery of Shigella flexneri, is chaperoned by IpgE and implicated in entry focus formation.

Invasion of epithelial cells by Shigella flexneri involves entry and intercellular dissemination. Entry of bacteria into non-phagocytic cells requires the IpaA-D proteins that are secreted by the Mxi-Spa type III secretion machinery. Type III secretion systems are found in several Gram-negative pathogens and serve to inject bacterial effector proteins directly into the cytoplasm of host cells. In this study, we have analysed the IpgD protein of S. flexneri, the gene of which is located on the virulence plasmid at the 5' end of the mxi-spa locus. We have shown that IpgD (i) is stored in the bacterial cytoplasm in association with a specific chaperone, IpgE; (ii) is secreted by the Mxi-Spa type III secretion system in amounts similar to those of the IpaA-D proteins; (iii) is associated with IpaA in the extracellular medium; and (iv) is involved in the modulation of the host cell response after contact of the bacterium with epithelial cells. This suggests that IpgD is an effector that might be injected into host cells to manipulate cellular processes during infection.

Myosin light chain kinase plays an essential role in S. flexneri dissemination.

Shigella flexneri, the causitive agent of bacillary dysentery, has been shown to disseminate in colonic epithelial cells via protrusions that extend from infected cells and are endocytosed by adjacent cells. This phenomenon occurs in the region of the eukaryotic cell's adherens junctions and is inhibited by pharmacological reagents or host cell mutations that completely disrupt the junctional complex. In this study, inhibitors of the myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) were shown to dramatically decrease intercellular spread of S. flexneri but to have no inhibitory effect on bacterial entry, multiplication or actin-based motility within the host cell. Furthermore, cell-to-cell spread of Listeria monocytogenes, another bacterial pathogen that uses an actin-based mechanism to move within the eukaryotic cytoplasm and to spread from cell to cell, was not affected by the MLCK inhibitors, indicating that (1) the inhibition of S. flexneri cell-to-cell spread in treated cells is not due to a complete break down of cell-cell contacts, which was subsequently confirmed by confocal microscopy, and (2) MLCK plays a role in a S. flexneri-specific mechanism of dissemination. Myosin has been shown to play a role in a variety of membrane-based phenomena. The work presented here suggests that activation of this molecule via phosphorylation by MLCK, at the very least participates in the formation of the bacteria-containing protrusion, and could also contribute to the endocytosis of this structure by neighboring cells.

Characterization of the AfaD-like family of invasins encoded by pathogenic Escherichia coli associated with intestinal and extra-intestinal infections.

The afimbrial adhesive sheath, encoded by the afa-3 gene cluster, is composed of two proteins with different roles in bacterium-HeLa cell interactions. AfaE is required for adhesion and AfaD for internalization. In this study, we found that the AfaD invasin was structurally and functionally conserved among human afa-expressing strains, independently of AfaE subtype and clinical origin of the Escherichia coli isolate. The AggB protein from enteroaggregative E. coli was also found to be an AfaD-related invasin. These data suggest that AfaD is the prototype of a family of invasins encoded by adhesion-associated operons in pathogenic E. coli.

Phage infection of the obligate intracellular bacterium, Chlamydia psittaci strain guinea pig inclusion conjunctivitis.

The infectious cycle of phiCPG1, a bacteriophage that infects the obligate intracellular pathogen, Chlamydia psittaci strain Guinea Pig Inclusion Conjunctivitis, was observed using transmission electron microscopy of phage-hyperinfected, Chlamydia-infected HeLa cells. Phage attachment to extracellular, metabolically dormant, infectious elementary bodies and cointernalisation are demonstrated. Following entry, phage infection takes place as soon as elementary bodies differentiate into metabolically active reticulate bodies. Phage-infected bacteria follow an altered developmental path whereby cell division is inhibited, producing abnormally large reticulate bodies, termed maxi-reticulate bodies, which do not mature to elementary bodies. These forms eventually lyse late in the chlamydial developmental cycle, releasing abundant phage progeny in the inclusion and, upon lysis of the inclusion membrane, into the cytosol of the host cell. Structural integrity of the hyperinfected HeLa cell is markedly compromised at late stages. Released phage particles attach avidly to the outer leaflet of the outer membranes of lysed and unlysed Chlamydiae at different stages of development, suggesting the presence of specific phage receptors in the outer membrane uniformly during the chlamydial developmental cycle. A mechanism for phage infection is proposed, whereby phage gains access to replicating chlamydiae by attaching to the infectious elementary body, subsequently subverting the chlamydial developmental cycle to its own replicative needs. The implications of phage infection in the context of chlamydial infection and disease are discussed.

Proteolysis of microtubule associated protein 2 and sensitivity of pancreatic tumours to docetaxel.

We have studied the state of microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP2) in the pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas P03 and P02 (sensitive and refractory to docetaxel respectively) since they express the corresponding mRNA and MAP2-related peptides. Immunohistochemical localization showed that in tumour P03 the MAP2-related peptides are highly expressed and confined to the epithelial malignant cells while in P02 the Intensity of the immunostaining is lower. However, anti alpha-tubulin staining followed a similar pattern suggesting that the net amount of macromolecular structures in the sensitive tumour is higher than in the refractory one. This may explain its higher sensitivity to docetaxel, because tubulin assembled into microtubules is the target of the drug. We found that protein extracts from both tumours differed in their proteolytic activity on rat brain MAP2. Since the proteolysis pattern obtained was similar to the one produced by Cathepsin D, we studied the effect of MAP2 proteolysed by this enzyme on microtubule formation in vitro. Proteolysis was found to increase the tendency of tubulin to assemble into macromolecular structures (microtubules and aggregates) in the presence of docetaxel. This suggests that in vivo proteolysis of MAP2 might increase microtubule alterations and potentiate the antitumour effect of docetaxel.

The Arp2/3 complex branches filament barbed ends: functional antagonism with capping proteins.

The Arp2/3 complex is an essential regulator of actin polymerization in response to signalling and generates a dendritic array of filaments in lamellipodia. Here we show that the activated Arp2/3 complex interacts with the barbed ends of filaments to initiate barbed-end branching. Barbed-end branching by Arp2/3 quantitatively accounts for polymerization kinetics and for the length correlation of the branches of filaments observed by electron microscopy. Filament branching is visualized at the surface of Listeria in a reconstituted motility assay. The functional antagonism between the Arp2/3 complex and capping proteins is essential in the maintenance of the steady state of actin assembly and actin-based motility.