Vitamin B5 metabolism is essential for vacuolar and mitochondrial functions and drug detoxification in fungi.

Fungal infections, a leading cause of mortality among eukaryotic pathogens, pose a growing global health threat due to the rise of drug-resistant strains. New therapeutic strategies are urgently needed to combat this challenge. The PCA pathway for biosynthesis of Co-enzyme A (CoA) and Acetyl-CoA (AcCoA) from vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) has been validated as an excellent target for the development of new antimicrobials against fungi and protozoa. The pathway regulates key cellular processes including metabolism of fatty acids, amino acids, sterols, and heme. In this study, we provide genetic evidence that disruption of the PCA pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae results in a significant alteration in the susceptibility of fungi to a wide range of xenobiotics, including clinically approved antifungal drugs through alteration of vacuolar morphology and drug detoxification. The drug potentiation mediated by genetic regulation of genes in the PCA pathway could be recapitulated using the pantazine analog PZ-2891 as well as the celecoxib derivative, AR-12 through inhibition of fungal AcCoA synthase activity. Collectively, the data validate the PCA pathway as a suitable target for enhancing the efficacy and safety of current antifungal therapies.

Identification of factors limiting the allotopic production of the Cox2 subunit of yeast cytochrome c oxidase.

Mitochondrial genes can be artificially relocalized in the nuclear genome in a process known as allotopic expression, such is the case of the mitochondrial cox2 gene, encoding subunit II of cytochrome c oxidase (CcO). In yeast, cox2 can be allotopically expressed and is able to restore respiratory growth of a cox2-null mutant if the Cox2 subunit carries the W56R substitution within the first transmembrane stretch. However, the COX2W56R strain exhibits reduced growth rates and lower steady-state CcO levels when compared to wild-type yeast. Here, we investigated the impact of overexpressing selected candidate genes predicted to enhance internalization of the allotopic Cox2W56R precursor into mitochondria. The overproduction of Cox20, Oxa1, and Pse1 facilitated Cox2W56R precursor internalization, improving the respiratory growth of the COX2W56R strain. Overproducing TIM22 components had a limited effect on Cox2W56R import, while overproducing TIM23-related components showed a negative effect. We further explored the role of the Mgr2 subunit within the TIM23 translocator in the import process by deleting and overexpressing the MGR2 gene. Our findings indicate that Mgr2 is instrumental in modulating the TIM23 translocon to correctly sort Cox2W56R. We propose a biogenesis pathway followed by the allotopically produced Cox2 subunit based on the participation of the 2 different structural/functional forms of the TIM23 translocon, TIM23MOTOR and TIM23SORT, that must follow a concerted and sequential mode of action to insert Cox2W56R into the inner mitochondrial membrane in the correct Nout-Cout topology.

The constraints of allotopic expression.

Allotopic expression is the functional transfer of an organellar gene to the nucleus, followed by synthesis of the gene product in the cytosol and import into the appropriate organellar sub compartment. Here, we focus on mitochondrial genes encoding OXPHOS subunits that were naturally transferred to the nucleus, and critically review experimental evidence that claim their allotopic expression. We emphasize aspects that may have been overlooked before, i.e., when modifying a mitochondrial gene for allotopic expression━besides adapting the codon usage and including sequences encoding mitochondrial targeting signals━three additional constraints should be considered: (i) the average apparent free energy of membrane insertion (µΔGapp) of the transmembrane stretches (TMS) in proteins earmarked for the inner mitochondrial membrane, (ii) the final, functional topology attained by each membrane-bound OXPHOS subunit; and (iii) the defined mechanism by which the protein translocator TIM23 sorts cytosol-synthesized precursors. The mechanistic constraints imposed by TIM23 dictate the operation of two pathways through which alpha-helices in TMS are sorted, that eventually determine the final topology of membrane proteins. We used the biological hydrophobicity scale to assign an average apparent free energy of membrane insertion (µΔGapp) and a "traffic light" color code to all TMS of OXPHOS membrane proteins, thereby predicting which are more likely to be internalized into mitochondria if allotopically produced. We propose that the design of proteins for allotopic expression must make allowance for µΔGapp maximization of highly hydrophobic TMS in polypeptides whose corresponding genes have not been transferred to the nucleus in some organisms.

Two disulfide-reducing pathways are required for the maturation of plastid c-type cytochromes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

In plastids, conversion of light energy into ATP relies on cytochrome f, a key electron carrier with a heme covalently attached to a CXXCH motif. Covalent heme attachment requires reduction of the disulfide-bonded CXXCH by CCS5 and CCS4. CCS5 receives electrons from the oxidoreductase CCDA, while CCS4 is a protein of unknown function. In Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, loss of CCS4 or CCS5 yields a partial cytochrome f assembly defect. Here, we report that the ccs4ccs5 double mutant displays a synthetic photosynthetic defect characterized by a complete loss of holocytochrome f assembly. This defect is chemically corrected by reducing agents, confirming the placement of CCS4 and CCS5 in a reducing pathway. CCS4-like proteins occur in the green lineage, and we show that HCF153, a distant ortholog from Arabidopsis thaliana, can substitute for Chlamydomonas CCS4. Dominant suppressor mutations mapping to the CCS4 gene were identified in photosynthetic revertants of the ccs4ccs5 mutants. The suppressor mutations yield changes in the stroma-facing domain of CCS4 that restore holocytochrome f assembly above the residual levels detected in ccs5. Because the CCDA protein accumulation is decreased specifically in the ccs4 mutant, we hypothesize the suppressor mutations enhance the supply of reducing power through CCDA in the absence of CCS5. We discuss the operation of a CCS5-dependent and a CCS5-independent pathway controlling the redox status of the heme-binding cysteines of apocytochrome f.

Assembly of Mitochondrial Complex I Requires the Low-Complexity Protein AMC1 in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Complex I is the first enzyme involved in the mitochondrial electron transport chain. With >40 subunits of dual genetic origin, the biogenesis of complex I is highly intricate and poorly understood. We used Chlamydomonas reinhardtii as a model system to reveal factors involved in complex I biogenesis. Two insertional mutants, displaying a complex I assembly defect characterized by the accumulation of a 700 kDa subcomplex, were analyzed. Genetic analyses showed these mutations were allelic and mapped to the gene AMC1 (Cre16.g688900) encoding a low-complexity protein of unknown function. The complex I assembly and activity in the mutant was restored by complementation with the wild-type gene, confirming AMC1 is required for complex I biogenesis. The N terminus of AMC1 targets a reporter protein to yeast mitochondria, implying that AMC1 resides and functions in the Chlamydomonas mitochondria. Accordingly, in both mutants, loss of AMC1 function results in decreased abundance of the mitochondrial nd4 transcript, which encodes the ND4 membrane subunit of complex I. Loss of ND4 in a mitochondrial nd4 mutant is characterized by a membrane arm assembly defect, similar to that exhibited by loss of AMC1. These results suggest AMC1 is required for the production of mitochondrially-encoded complex I subunits, specifically ND4. We discuss the possible modes of action of AMC1 in mitochondrial gene expression and complex I biogenesis.

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii as a plant model system to study mitochondrial complex I dysfunction.

Mitochondrial complex I, a proton-pumping NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, is required for oxidative phosphorylation. However, the contribution of several human mutations to complex I deficiency is poorly understood. The unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was utilized to study complex I as, unlike in mammals, mutants with complete loss of the holoenzyme are viable. From a forward genetic screen for complex I-deficient insertional mutants, six mutants exhibiting complex I deficiency with assembly defects were isolated. Chlamydomonas mutants isolated from our screens, lacking the subunits NDUFV2 and NDUFB10, were used to reconstruct and analyze the effect of two human mutations in these subunit-encoding genes. The K209R substitution in NDUFV2, reported in Parkinson's disease patients, did not significantly affect the enzyme activity or assembly. The C107S substitution in the NDUFB10 subunit, reported in a case of fatal infantile cardiomyopathy, is part of a conserved C-(X)11-C motif. The cysteine substitutions, at either one or both positions, still allowed low levels of holoenzyme formation, indicating that this motif is crucial for complex I function but not strictly essential for assembly. We show that the algal mutants provide a simple and useful platform to delineate the consequences of patient mutations on complex I function.

Key within-membrane residues and precursor dosage impact the allotopic expression of yeast subunit II of cytochrome c oxidase.

Experimentally relocating mitochondrial genes to the nucleus for functional expression (allotopic expression) is a challenging process. The high hydrophobicity of mitochondria-encoded proteins seems to be one of the main factors preventing this allotopic expression. We focused on subunit II of cytochrome c oxidase (Cox2) to study which modifications may enable or improve its allotopic expression in yeast. Cox2 can be imported from the cytosol into mitochondria in the presence of the W56R substitution, which decreases the protein hydrophobicity and allows partial respiratory rescue of a cox2-null strain. We show that the inclusion of a positive charge is more favorable than substitutions that only decrease the hydrophobicity. We also searched for other determinants enabling allotopic expression in yeast by examining the COX2 gene in organisms where it was transferred to the nucleus during evolution. We found that naturally occurring variations at within-membrane residues in the legume Glycine max Cox2 could enable yeast COX2 allotopic expression. We also evidence that directing high doses of allotopically synthesized Cox2 to mitochondria seems to be counterproductive because the subunit aggregates at the mitochondrial surface. Our findings are relevant to the design of allotopic expression strategies and contribute to the understanding of gene retention in organellar genomes.

CCS2, an Octatricopeptide-Repeat Protein, Is Required for Plastid Cytochrome c Assembly in the Green Alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

In bacteria and energy generating organelles, c-type cytochromes are a class of universal electron carriers with a heme cofactor covalently linked via one or two thioether bonds to a heme binding site. The covalent attachment of heme to apocytochromes is a catalyzed process, taking place via three evolutionarily distinct assembly pathways (Systems I, II, III). System II was discovered in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii through the genetic analysis of the ccs mutants (cytochrome csynthesis), which display a block in the apo- to holo- form conversion of cytochrome f and c6, the thylakoid lumen resident c-type cytochromes functioning in photosynthesis. Here we show that the gene corresponding to the CCS2 locus encodes a 1,719 amino acid polypeptide and identify the molecular lesions in the ccs2-1 to ccs2-5 alleles. The CCS2 protein displays seven degenerate amino acid repeats, which are variations of the octatricopeptide-repeat motif (OPR) recently recognized in several nuclear-encoded proteins controlling the maturation, stability, or translation of chloroplast transcripts. A plastid site of action for CCS2 is inferred from the finding that GFP fused to the first 100 amino acids of the algal protein localizes to chloroplasts in Nicotiana benthamiana. We discuss the possible functions of CCS2 in the heme attachment reaction.

Maturation of Plastid c-type Cytochromes.

Cytochromes c are hemoproteins, with the prosthetic group covalently linked to the apoprotein, which function as electron carriers. A class of cytochromes c is defined by a CXXCH heme-binding motif where the cysteines form thioether bonds with the vinyl groups of heme. Plastids are known to contain up to three cytochromes c. The membrane-bound cytochrome f and soluble cytochrome c6 operate in photosynthesis while the activity of soluble cytochrome c6A remains unknown. Conversion of apo- to holocytochrome c occurs in the thylakoid lumen and requires the independent transport of apocytochrome and heme across the thylakoid membrane followed by the stereospecific attachment of ferroheme via thioether linkages. Attachment of heme to apoforms of plastid cytochromes c is dependent upon the products of the CCS (for cytochrome csynthesis) genes, first uncovered via genetic analysis of photosynthetic deficient mutants in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The CCS pathway also occurs in cyanobacteria and several bacteria. CcsA and CCS1, the signature components of the CCS pathway are polytopic membrane proteins proposed to operate in the delivery of heme from the stroma to the lumen, and also in the catalysis of the heme ligation reaction. CCDA, CCS4, and CCS5 are components of trans-thylakoid pathways that deliver reducing equivalents in order to maintain the heme-binding cysteines in a reduced form prior to thioether bond formation. While only four CCS components are needed in bacteria, at least eight components are required for plastid cytochrome c assembly, suggesting the biochemistry of thioether formation is more nuanced in the plastid system.

Plant mitochondrial Complex I composition and assembly: A review.

In the mitochondrial inner membrane, oxidative phosphorylation generates ATP via the operation of several multimeric enzymes. The proton-pumping Complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) is the first and most complicated enzyme required in this process. Complex I is an L-shaped enzyme consisting of more than 40 subunits, one FMN molecule and eight Fe-S clusters. In recent years, genetic and proteomic analyses of Complex I mutants in various model systems, including plants, have provided valuable insights into the assembly of this multimeric enzyme. Assisted by a number of key players, referred to as "assembly factors", the assembly of Complex I takes place in a sequential and modular manner. Although a number of factors have been identified, their precise function in mediating Complex I assembly still remains to be elucidated. This review summarizes our current knowledge of plant Complex I composition and assembly derived from studies in plant model systems such as Arabidopsis thaliana and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Plant Complex I is highly conserved and comprises a significant number of subunits also present in mammalian and fungal Complexes I. Plant Complex I also contains additional subunits absent from the mammalian and fungal counterpart, whose function in enzyme activity and assembly is not clearly understood. While 14 assembly factors have been identified for human Complex I, only two proteins, namely GLDH and INDH, have been established as bona fide assembly factors for plant Complex I. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Respiratory complex I, edited by Volker Zickermann and Ulrich Brandt.

Operation of trans-thylakoid thiol-metabolizing pathways in photosynthesis.

Thiol oxidation to disulfides and the reverse reaction, i.e., disulfide reduction to free thiols, are under the control of catalysts in vivo. Enzymatically assisted thiol-disulfide chemistry is required for the biogenesis of all energy-transducing membrane systems. However, until recently, this had only been demonstrated for the bacterial plasma membrane. Long considered to be vacant, the thylakoid lumen has now moved to the forefront of photosynthesis research with the realization that its proteome is far more complicated than initially anticipated. Several lumenal proteins are known to be disulfide bonded in Arabidopsis, highlighting the importance of sulfhydryl oxidation in the thylakoid lumen. While disulfide reduction in the plastid stroma is known to activate several enzymatic activities, it appears that it is the reverse reaction, i.e., thiol oxidation that is required for the activity of several lumen-resident proteins. This paradigm for redox regulation in the thylakoid lumen has opened a new frontier for research in the field of photosynthesis. Of particular significance in this context is the discovery of trans-thylakoid redox pathways controlling disulfide bond formation and reduction, which are required for photosynthesis.

Apigenin protects endothelial cells from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation by decreasing caspase-3 activation and modulating mitochondrial function.

Acute and chronic inflammation is characterized by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, dysregulation of mitochondrial metabolism and abnormal immune function contributing to cardiovascular diseases and sepsis. Clinical and epidemiological studies suggest potential beneficial effects of dietary interventions in inflammatory diseases but understanding of how nutrients work remains insufficient. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of apigenin, an anti-inflammatory flavonoid abundantly found in our diet, in endothelial cells during inflammation. Here, we show that apigenin reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced apoptosis by decreasing ROS production and the activity of caspase-3 in endothelial cells. Apigenin conferred protection against LPS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and reestablished normal mitochondrial complex I activity, a major site of electron leakage and superoxide production, suggesting its ability to modulate endothelial cell metabolic function during inflammation. Collectively, these findings indicate that the dietary compound apigenin stabilizes mitochondrial function during inflammation preventing endothelial cell damage and thus provide new translational opportunities for the use of dietary components in the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases.

A heme-sensing mechanism in the translational regulation of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase biogenesis.

Heme plays fundamental roles as cofactor and signaling molecule in multiple pathways devoted to oxygen sensing and utilization in aerobic organisms. For cellular respiration, heme serves as a prosthetic group in electron transfer proteins and redox enzymes. Here we report that in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a heme-sensing mechanism translationally controls the biogenesis of cytochrome c oxidase (COX), the terminal mitochondrial respiratory chain enzyme. We show that Mss51, a COX1 mRNA-specific translational activator and Cox1 chaperone, which coordinates Cox1 synthesis in mitoribosomes with its assembly in COX, is a heme-binding protein. Mss51 contains two heme regulatory motifs or Cys-Pro-X domains located in its N terminus. Using a combination of in vitro and in vivo approaches, we have demonstrated that these motifs are important for heme binding and efficient performance of Mss51 functions. We conclude that heme sensing by Mss51 regulates COX biogenesis and aerobic energy production.

The flavoprotein Cyc2p, a mitochondrial cytochrome c assembly factor, is a NAD(P)H-dependent haem reductase.

Cytochrome c assembly requires sulphydryls at the CXXCH haem binding site on the apoprotein and also chemical reduction of the haem co-factor. In yeast mitochondria, the cytochrome haem lyases (CCHL, CC(1) HL) and Cyc2p catalyse covalent haem attachment to apocytochromes c and c(1) . An in vivo indication that Cyc2p controls a reductive step in the haem attachment reaction is the finding that the requirement for its function can be bypassed by exogenous reductants. Although redox titrations of Cyc2p flavin (E(m) = -290 mV) indicate that reduction of a disulphide at the CXXCH site of apocytochrome c (E(m) = -265 mV) is a thermodynamically favourable reaction, Cyc2p does not act as an apocytochrome c or c(1) CXXCH disulphide reductase in vitro. In contrast, Cyc2p is able to catalyse the NAD(P)H-dependent reduction of hemin, an indication that the protein's role may be to control the redox state of the iron in the haem attachment reaction to apocytochromes c. Using two-hybrid analysis, we show that Cyc2p interacts with CCHL and also with apocytochromes c and c(1) . We postulate that Cyc2p, possibly in a complex with CCHL, reduces the haem iron prior to haem attachment to the apoforms of cytochrome c and c(1) .

A forward genetic screen identifies mutants deficient for mitochondrial complex I assembly in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.

Mitochondrial complex I is the largest multimeric enzyme of the respiratory chain. The lack of a model system with facile genetics has limited the molecular dissection of complex I assembly. Using Chlamydomonas reinhardtii as an experimental system to screen for complex I defects, we isolated, via forward genetics, amc1-7 nuclear mutants (for assembly of mitochondrial complex I) displaying reduced or no complex I activity. Blue native (BN)-PAGE and immunoblot analyses revealed that amc3 and amc4 accumulate reduced levels of the complex I holoenzyme (950 kDa) while all other amc mutants fail to accumulate a mature complex. In amc1, -2, -5-7, the detection of a 700 kDa subcomplex retaining NADH dehydrogenase activity indicates an arrest in the assembly process. Genetic analyses established that amc5 and amc7 are alleles of the same locus while amc1-4 and amc6 define distinct complementation groups. The locus defined by the amc5 and amc7 alleles corresponds to the NUOB10 gene, encoding PDSW, a subunit of the membrane arm of complex I. This is the first report of a forward genetic screen yielding the isolation of complex I mutants. This work illustrates the potential of using Chlamydomonas as a genetically tractable organism to decipher complex I manufacture.

A novel component of the disulfide-reducing pathway required for cytochrome c assembly in plastids.

In plastids, the conversion of energy in the form of light to ATP requires key electron shuttles, the c-type cytochromes, which are defined by the covalent attachment of heme to a CXXCH motif. Plastid c-type cytochrome biogenesis occurs in the thylakoid lumen and requires a system for transmembrane transfer of reductants. Previously, CCDA and CCS5/HCF164, found in all plastid-containing organisms, have been proposed as two components of the disulfide-reducing pathway. In this work, we identify a small novel protein, CCS4, as a third component in this pathway. CCS4 was genetically identified in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii on the basis of the rescue of the ccs4 mutant, which is blocked in the synthesis of holoforms of plastid c-type cytochromes, namely cytochromes f and c(6). Although CCS4 does not display sequence motifs suggestive of redox or heme-binding function, biochemical and genetic complementation experiments suggest a role in the disulfide-reducing pathway required for heme attachment to apoforms of cytochromes c. Exogenous thiols partially rescue the growth phenotype of the ccs4 mutant concomitant with recovery of holocytochrome f accumulation, as does expression of an ectopic copy of the CCDA gene, encoding a trans-thylakoid transporter of reducing equivalents. We suggest that CCS4 might function to stabilize CCDA or regulate its activity.

Lumen Thiol Oxidoreductase1, a disulfide bond-forming catalyst, is required for the assembly of photosystem II in Arabidopsis.

Here, we identify Arabidopsis thaliana Lumen Thiol Oxidoreductase1 (LTO1) as a disulfide bond-forming enzyme in the thylakoid lumen. Using topological reporters in bacteria, we deduced a lumenal location for the redox active domains of the protein. LTO1 can partially substitute for the proteins catalyzing disulfide bond formation in the bacterial periplasm, which is topologically equivalent to the plastid lumen. An insertional mutation within the LTO1 promoter is associated with a severe photoautotrophic growth defect. Measurements of the photosynthetic activity indicate that the lto1 mutant displays a limitation in the electron flow from photosystem II (PSII). In accordance with these measurements, we noted a severe depletion of the structural subunits of PSII but no change in the accumulation of the cytochrome b(6)f complex or photosystem I. In a yeast two-hybrid assay, the thioredoxin-like domain of LTO1 interacts with PsbO, a lumenal PSII subunit known to be disulfide bonded, and a recombinant form of the molecule can introduce a disulfide bond in PsbO in vitro. The documentation of a sulfhydryl-oxidizing activity in the thylakoid lumen further underscores the importance of catalyzed thiol-disulfide chemistry for the biogenesis of the thylakoid compartment.

c-type cytochrome assembly in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a key residue for apocytochrome c1/lyase interaction.

The electron transport chains in the membranes of bacteria and organelles generate proton-motive force essential for ATP production. The c-type cytochromes, defined by the covalent attachment of heme to a CXXCH motif, are key electron carriers in these energy-transducing membranes. In mitochondria, cytochromes c and c(1) are assembled by the cytochrome c heme lyases (CCHL and CC(1)HL) and by Cyc2p, a putative redox protein. A cytochrome c(1) mutant with a CAPCH heme-binding site instead of the wild-type CAACH is strictly dependent upon Cyc2p for assembly. In this context, we found that overexpression of CC(1)HL, as well as mutations of the proline in the CAPCH site to H, L, S, or T residues, can bypass the absence of Cyc2p. The P mutation was postulated to shift the CXXCH motif to an oxidized form, which must be reduced in a Cyc2p-dependent reaction before heme ligation. However, measurement of the redox midpoint potential of apocytochrome c(1) indicates that neither the P nor the T residues impact the thermodynamic propensity of the CXXCH motif to occur in a disulfide vs. dithiol form. We show instead that the identity of the second intervening residue in the CXXCH motif is key in determining the CCHL-dependent vs. CC(1)HL-dependent assembly of holocytochrome c(1). We also provide evidence that Cyc2p is dedicated to the CCHL pathway and is not required for the CC(1)HL-dependent assembly of cytochrome c(1).

CCS5, a thioredoxin-like protein involved in the assembly of plastid c-type cytochromes.

The c-type cytochromes are metalloproteins with a heme molecule covalently linked to the sulfhydryls of a CXXCH heme-binding site. In plastids, at least six assembly factors are required for heme attachment to the apo-forms of cytochrome f and cytochrome c(6) in the thylakoid lumen. CCS5, controlling plastid cytochrome c assembly, was identified through insertional mutagenesis in the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The complementing gene encodes a protein with similarity to Arabidopsis thaliana HCF164, which is a thylakoid membrane-anchored protein with a lumen-facing thioredoxin-like domain. HCF164 is required for cytochrome b(6)f biogenesis, but its activity and site of action in the assembly process has so far remained undeciphered. We show that CCS5 is a component of a trans-thylakoid redox pathway and operates by reducing the CXXCH heme-binding site of apocytochrome c prior to the heme ligation reaction. The proposal is based on the following findings: 1) the ccs5 mutant is rescued by exogenous thiols; 2) CCS5 interacts with apocytochrome f and c(6) in a yeast two-hybrid assay; and 3) recombinant CCS5 is able to reduce a disulfide in the CXXCH heme-binding site of apocytochrome f.

Redox processes controlling the biogenesis of c-type cytochromes.

In mitochondria, two mono heme c-type cytochromes are essential electron shuttles of the respiratory chain. They are characterized by the covalent attachment of their heme C to a CXXCH motif in the apoproteins. This post-translational modification occurs in the intermembrane space compartment. Dedicated assembly pathways have evolved to achieve this chemical reaction that requires a strict reducing environment. In mitochondria, two unrelated machineries operate, the rather simple System III in yeast and animals and System I in plants and some protozoans. System I is also found in bacteria and shares some common features with System II that operates in bacteria and plastids. This review aims at presenting how different systems control the chemical requirements for the heme ligation in the compartments where cytochrome c maturation takes place. A special emphasis will be given on the redox processes that are required for the heme attachment reaction onto apocytochromes c.