Effect of metritis on in-vitro uterine contractility in cows during the puerperium.

Aim of this study was to determine the effect of metritis on in-vitro uterine contractility. Uteri obtained from 16 euthanized Holstein-Friesian cows were divided into two groups depending on whether metritis was absent (M-, n = 6) or present (M+, n = 10). Four longitudinal and four circular myometrial strips of all uteri were incubated in an organ bath. Spontaneous contractility was recorded in five consecutive 30-minute periods (T1-T5). This was followed by stimulation of one longitudinal and one circular strip with increasing concentrations of oxytocin, prostaglandinF2α (PGF2α), and calcium chloride (each during four 30-minute periods [T6-T9]). Strips in group M+ had higher minimum amplitude (minA) values at T1 and higher minA, mean amplitude (meanA), and area under the curve (AUC) values at T2 than strips in group M- (P ≤ 0.05). In the M+ group, the maximum amplitude (maxA), meanA, and AUC values of circular strips were higher than those of longitudinal strips during spontaneous contractility (T1, T4, and T5; P ≤ 0.05). The minA, meanA, and AUC values for strips in group M+ were higher than those in group M- when exposed to the highest concentration of PGF2α (P ≤ 0.05). During stimulation with PGF2α (T9), longitudinal strips had higher maxA values than the circular strips in group M+ (P ≤ 0.05). Spontaneous and stimulated contractility were temporarily increased in uteri with metritis compared to healthy uteri. Both myometrial layers, especially in uteri with metritis, reacted differently during spontaneous contractility and to stimulation with PGF2α.

Quantitative measurement of udder oedema in dairy cows using ultrasound to monitor the effectiveness of diuretic treatment with furosemide.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to record the course of peripartal udder oedema with ultrasonography in dairy cows and to investigate the therapeutic effects of diuretic furosemide. For this purpose, a device with a force sensor for the ultrasound probe was developed, which ensured the generation of data under similar pressure conditions and thereby repeatable and comparable results. In a pretrial with ten cows, ultrasonographic measurements were performed daily at four locations per udder quarter beginning 14 days ante partum until 14 d post partum. The main study included 50 dairy cows. The experimental group (n=25) received 500 mg furosemide intramuscularly on the day of calving, as well as on the first and second day post partum. The control group (n=25) was treated with 10 mL 0,9 % sodium chloride solution (NaCl) at the same timepoints. The experimental period was extended from 21 days ante partum until 21 days post partum and included 15 ultrasonographic measurements at three-day intervals. The measurements were performed at the teat base, which turned out to be the most suitable location in the pretrial. Quarter milk samples were collected on the day of calving, 7 and 14 days post partum. The average thickness of the udder oedema between the group treated with furosemide and the control group did not differ. In conclusion, a method for the ultrasonographic measurement of udder oedema under comparable applied forces was established. The teat base turned out to be a suitable location to monitor the characteristic temporal course of udder oedema. In the present study, treatment with furosemide did not have a measurable, positive effect on the severity of the udder oedema post partum in the study animals. Finally, further studies with a higher sample size are necessary to confirm this relationship.

INTRODUCTION: Le but de la présente étude était d'enregistrer l'évolution de l'œdème de la mamelle périnatal par échographie chez les vaches laitières et d'étudier les effets thérapeutiques du diurétique furosémide. À cette fin, un appareil avec un capteur de force pour la sonde à ultrasons a été développé, ce qui a assuré la génération de données dans des conditions de pression similaires et ainsi des résultats reproductibles et comparables. Dans un essai préliminaire avec dix vaches, des mesures échographiques ont été effectuées quotidiennement à quatre endroits par quartier à partir de 14 jours ante partum jusqu'à 14 jours post partum. L'étude principale portait sur 50 vaches laitières. Le groupe expérimental (n=25) a reçu 500 mg de furosémide par voie intramusculaire le jour du vêlage ainsi que les premier et deuxième jours post-partum. Le groupe témoin (n = 25) a été traité avec 10 ml de solution de chlorure de sodium à 0,9 % (NaCl) aux mêmes moments. La période expérimentale a été étendue de 21 jours ante partum jusqu'à 21 jours post partum et comprenait 15 mesures échographiques à trois jours d'intervalle. Les mesures ont été effectuées à la base du trayon, qui s'est avérée être l'emplacement le plus approprié dans la phase préliminaire. Des échantillons de lait de chaque quartier ont été prélevés le jour du vêlage, 7 et 14 jours post-partum. L'épaisseur moyenne de l'œdème de la mamelle entre le groupe traité au furosémide et le groupe témoin ne différait pas. En conclusion, une méthode de mesure échographique de l'œdème de la mamelle sous des forces appliquées comparables a été établie. La base du trayon s'est avérée être un endroit approprié pour surveiller l'évolution temporelle caractéristique de l'œdème de la mamelle. Dans la présente étude, le traitement au furosémide n'a pas eu d'effet positif mesurable sur la gravité de l'œdème de la mamelle post-partum chez les animaux de l'étude. Enfin, d'autres études avec une taille d'échantillon plus élevée sont nécessaires pour confirmer cette relation.

Prevalence of disorders in preweaned dairy calves from 731 dairies in Germany: A cross-sectional study.

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to determine the prevalence of disorders in preweaned calves in 3 regions in Germany, exemplary for structural diversity in dairy farming. A farm visit was performed on a single occasion on 731 dairy farms in the northern, eastern, and southern regions of Germany between December 2016 and July 2019. Farms differed in herd size, geographical location, and management. In the northern region, the farms had a median of 90 milking cows and were often run as full-time family businesses, partly with external workers. The eastern region tended to have larger farms (a median of 251 milking cows), which were often large-scale agricultural enterprises with employees. In the southern region, the farms had a median of 39 milking cows and were often traditional family businesses, some of these being part-time businesses. Clinical examinations were performed on 14,164 preweaned dairy calves (median 12 calves per farm) by trained veterinarians. A complete data set was available for 13,656 calves. Almost half (42.0%) of the evaluated calves were classified as being affected by at least 1 of the common calf disorders. Omphalitis (O, 20.9%; n = 2,876) and diarrhea (D, 18.5%; n = 2,670) were the most frequently recorded diagnoses, whereas respiratory diseases (RD) were observed to a lesser extent (8.7%; n = 1,100). A striking feature was the fact that 7.1% (n = 987) of the calves were affected by more than 1 disorder at the same time (multimorbidity, M). The following combinations of disorders were frequently observed: O and D (n = 596), O and RD (n = 164), and D and RD (n = 140). Disorders such as O and D, as well as M, were predominantly observed in calves aged 2 wk. A gradual increase in the frequency of RD was observed with age. For all disorders except RD, male calves were more often affected than females. Omphalitis was predominantly diagnosed in the summer months, whereas RD, D, and M were more common in the fall. We detected several statistically significant differences in the prevalence of clinical signs and disorders in preweaned dairy calves between the 3 exemplary regions. The prevalence of RD was higher in the south (10.8%) than in the north (8.2%) and east (7.4%). In the north (33.2%), O was observed more frequently than in the other regions (east: 18.9%; south: 10.5%), whereas D was found less frequently in the north (13.8%) than in the east (21.6%) and south (20.0%).

Cows selected for divergent mastitis susceptibility display a differential liver transcriptome profile after experimental Staphylococcus aureus mammary gland inoculation.

Infection and inflammation of the mammary gland, and especially prevention of mastitis, are still major challenges for the dairy industry. Different approaches have been tried to reduce the incidence of mastitis. Genetic selection of cows with lower susceptibility to mastitis promises sustainable success in this regard. Bos taurus autosome (BTA) 18, particularly the region between 43 and 59 Mb, harbors quantitative trait loci (QTL) for somatic cell score, a surrogate trait for mastitis susceptibility. Scrutinizing the molecular bases hereof, we challenged udders from half-sib heifers having inherited either favorable paternal haplotypes for somatic cell score (Q) or unfavorable haplotypes (q) with the Staphylococcus aureus pathogen. RNA sequencing was used for an in-depth analysis of challenge-related alterations in the hepatic transcriptome. Liver exerts highly relevant immune functions aside from being the key metabolic organ. Hence, a holistic approach focusing on the liver enabled us to identify challenge-related and genotype-dependent differentially expressed genes and underlying regulatory networks. In response to the S. aureus challenge, we found that heifers with Q haplotypes displayed more activated immune genes and pathways after S. aureus challenge compared with their q half-sibs. Furthermore, we found a significant enrichment of differentially expressed loci in the genomic target region on BTA18, suggesting the existence of a regionally acting regulatory element with effects on a variety of genes in this region.

In vivo model to study the impact of genetic variation on clinical outcome of mastitis in uniparous dairy cows.

BACKGROUND: In dairy herds, mastitis causes detrimental economic losses. Genetic selection offers a sustainable tool to select animals with reduced susceptibility towards postpartum diseases. Studying underlying mechanisms is important to assess the physiological processes that cause differences between selected haplotypes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to establish an in vivo infection model to study the impact of selecting for alternative paternal haplotypes in a particular genomic region on cattle chromosome 18 for mastitis susceptibility under defined conditions in uniparous dairy cows. RESULTS: At the start of pathogen challenge, no significant differences between the favorable (Q) and unfavorable (q) haplotypes were detected. Intramammary infection (IMI) with Staphylococcus aureus 1027 (S. aureus, n = 24, 96 h) or Escherichia coli 1303 (E. coli, n = 12, 24 h) was successfully induced in all uniparous cows. This finding was confirmed by clinical signs of mastitis and repeated recovery of the respective pathogen from milk samples of challenged quarters in each animal. After S. aureus challenge, Q-uniparous cows showed lower somatic cell counts 24 h and 36 h after challenge (P < 0.05), lower bacterial shedding in milk 12 h after challenge (P < 0.01) and a minor decrease in total milk yield 12 h and 24 h after challenge (P < 0.01) compared to q-uniparous cows. CONCLUSION: An in vivo infection model to study the impact of genetic selection for mastitis susceptibility under defined conditions in uniparous dairy cows was successfully established and revealed significant differences between the two genetically selected haplotype groups. This result might explain their differences in susceptibility towards IMI. These clinical findings form the basis for further in-depth molecular analysis to clarify the underlying genetic mechanisms for mastitis resistance.

Genetic selection for bovine chromosome 18 haplotypes associated with divergent somatic cell score affects postpartum reproductive and metabolic performance.

The susceptibility of animals to periparturient diseases has a great effect on the economic efficiency of dairy industries, on the frequency of antibiotic treatment, and on animal welfare. The use of selection for breeding cows with reduced susceptibility to diseases offers a sustainable tool to improve dairy cattle farming. Several studies have focused on the association of distinct bovine chromosome 18 genotypes or haplotypes with performance traits. The aim of this study was to test whether selection of Holstein Friesian heifers via SNP genotyping for alternative paternal chromosome 18 haplotypes associated with favorable (Q) or unfavorable (q) somatic cell scores influences postpartum reproductive and metabolic diseases. Thirty-six heifers (18 Q and 18 q) were monitored from 3 wk before calving until necropsy on d 39 (± 4 d) after calving. Health status and rectal temperature were measured daily, and body condition score and body weight were assessed once per week. Blood samples were drawn twice weekly, and levels of insulin, nonesterified fatty acids, insulin-like growth factor-I, growth hormone, and ß-hydroxybutyrate were measured. Comparisons between the groups were performed using Fisher's exact test, chi-squared test, and the GLIMMIX procedure in SAS. Results showed that Q-heifers had reduced incidence of metritis compared with q-heifers and were less likely to develop fever. Serum concentrations of ß-hydroxybutyrate were lower and insulin-like growth factor-I plasma concentrations were higher in Q- compared with q-heifers. However, the body condition score and withers height were comparable between haplotypes, but weight loss tended to be lower in Q-heifers compared with q-heifers. No differences between the groups were detected concerning retained fetal membranes, uterine involution, or onset of cyclicity. In conclusion, selection of chromosome 18 haplotypes associated with a reduced somatic cell score resulted in a decreased incidence of postpartum reproductive and metabolic diseases in this study. The presented data add to the existing knowledge aimed at avoiding negative consequences of genetic selection strategies in dairy cattle farming. The underlying causal mechanisms modulated by haplotypes in the targeted genomic region and immune competence necessitate further investigation.

Correction to: Characterization of functional traits with focus on udder health in heifers with divergent paternally inherited haplotypes on BTA18.

The original article [1] contained an error whereby the captions to Figs 2 and 3 were mistakenly inverted; this has now been corrected.

Characterization of functional traits with focus on udder health in heifers with divergent paternally inherited haplotypes on BTA18.

BACKGROUND: A major challenge in modern medicine and animal husbandry is the issue of antimicrobial resistance. One approach to solving this potential medical hazard is the selection of farm animals with less susceptibility to infectious diseases. Recent advances in functional genome analysis and quantitative genetics have opened the horizon to apply genetic marker information for efficiently identifying animals with preferential predisposition regarding health traits. The current study characterizes functional traits with a focus on udder health in dairy heifers. The animals were selected for having inherited alternative paternal haplotypes for a genomic region on Bos taurus chromosome (BTA) 18 genetically associated with divergent susceptibility to longevity and animal health, particularly mastitis. RESULTS: In the first weeks of lactation, the q heifers which had inherited the unfavorable (q) paternal haplotype displayed a significantly higher number of udder quarters with very low somatic cell count (< 10,000 cells / ml) compared to their paternal half-sib sisters with the favorable (Q) paternal haplotype. This might result in impaired mammary gland sentinel function towards invading pathogens. Furthermore, across the course of the first lactation, there was indication that q half-sib heifers showed higher somatic cell counts, a surrogate trait for udder health, in whole milkings compared to their paternal half-sib sisters with the favorable (Q) paternal haplotype. Moreover, heifers with the haplotype Q had a higher feed intake and higher milk yield compared to those with the q haplotype. Results of this study indicate that differences in milk production and calculated energy balance per se are not the main drivers of the genetically determined differences between the BTA18 Q and q groups of heifers. CONCLUSIONS: The paternally inherited haplotype from a targeted BTA18 genomic region affect somatic cell count in udder quarters during the early postpartum period and might also contribute to further aspects of animal's health and performance traits due to indirect effects on feed intake and metabolism.

Thyroid hormone profiles and TSH evaluation during early pregnancy and the transition period in dairy cows.

The thyroid hormone axis is one important endocrine system within a complex system of various factors and hormones necessary to establish and maintain pregnancy in cattle and in metabolic adaptations towards lactation. Pregnancy and lactation occur contemporaneously in dairy cows, and have major impacts on thyroid hormones as well as status of the hypothalamus-pituitary thyroid axis influences pregnancy and lactation. As especially the thyroid hormone axis with special focus to TSH is not well studies in the past, the aim of the study was to examine the thyroid hormone axis, especially in heifers during adaptation to the first lactation, to verify the association between lactation and thyroid hormones. Secondly, the early pregnancy period was the focus of the present investigation. To determine thyroid hormone patterns and especially thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) during the transition period, 12 primiparous Holstein Friesian cows and 41 pregnant and 34 non-pregnant pluriparous cows were sampled. During the transition period, thyroxin (T4) concentrations decreased after calving in primiparous cows, and the milk yield [kg] was negatively correlated with triiodothyronine (T3) and T4 concentrations. In pregnant and non-pregnant pluriparous cows, T3, T4, TSH and free T4 (fT4) decreased between the day of ovulation (day 0) and day 18. From day 18 of gestation to day 100 after AI, an increase in TSH and fT4 and a decrease in Reverse T3 (rT3) was observed in the pregnant cows. In conclusion, the results of the present study confirm that regulative processes within the thyroid hormone metabolism occur during early lactation. For the first time it could be shown in dairy cows that TSH and fT4 increased during early pregnancy whereas rT3 decreased indicating also in bovine species a TSH stimulatory effect by pregnancy.

Effects of oxytocin and PGF2α on uterine contractility in cows with and without metritis-An in-vitro study.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of PGF2α and oxytocin in vitro on myometrial contractility in puerperal uteri. Thirteen puerperal uteri were removed and perfused after euthanasia of cows with (n=7) and without metritis (n=6). Measurement of uterine contractility was done using four piezoelectric crystals, which were implanted into the myometrium along the greater curvature of the uterine horn where fetal implantation occurred during the previous pregnancy. After 30min of equilibration, oxytocin (5 IU) or PGF2α (2.5mg Dinoprost) was administered randomly into both uterine arteries, and 30min later, the second administration of either oxytocin or PGF2α occurred. Treatment with oxytocin induced contractions in uteri with metritis and uteri without metritis (P<0.05). In uteri with metritis, greater uterine contractions occurred after stimulation with oxytocin than in uteri without metritis (P<0.05). Treatment with PGF2α did not (P>0.05) result in increased contractions in the uteri without metrtitis, however, induced an initial decrease in contractions followed by an increase (P<0.05) in contractions in uteri with metritis. Myometrial and endometrial gene expression of PGF2α (FPR) and oxytocin receptor (OTR) was greater (P<0.05) in uteri with metritis than in uteri without metritis. The results suggest that oxytocin, but not PGF2α, is an effective uterotonic drug in puerperal cows. Uteri in which metritis was diagnosed contracted more strongly after treatment with oxytocin than uteri in which metritis was not diagnosed. This effect was paralleled by greater gene expression of OTR as well as FPR in uteri with metritis compared with uteri in which metritis was not diagnosed.

Preliminary data on possible protein markers of parturition in cows.

Parturition is one of the most important events in reproduction. Regardless of many studies, exact time for pregnancy termination and onset of parturition is impossible to determine. The aim of this study was to describe and to compare protein profile of plasma from healthy pregnant cows (n = 6) at following five time points: 2 weeks, 1 week before, at parturition, 1 week and 2 weeks after parturition to search for possible protein markers of parturition. Plasma samples were analysed by 1D and 2D electrophoresis, and selected spots were identified by mass spectrometry. Protein profile showed no uniform pattern. Seventy spots differed at least for one sampling point from the time point 2 weeks before parturition which served as reference. Thirty spots expressed higher intensity of staining 1 week as 2 weeks before parturition while 13 showed opposite relationship. Twenty two spots expressed higher intensity of staining at parturition as 2 weeks before delivery while 15 showed opposite relationship. Eighteen spots expressed higher intensity of staining 2 weeks before parturition as 1 week post-partum while 2 showed opposite relationship. Fifteen spots expressed higher intensity of staining 2 weeks before parturition as 2 weeks after delivery while 14 showed opposite relationship. Thirty-five proteins, belonging to different functional groups, were identified. Of them, 15 spots differed significantly between parturition and 2 weeks before delivery. Among them were metalloproteinase inhibitor and LDH which seem to be the most promising molecules considered as parturition markers due to their functions.

Evaluation of the iVET® birth monitoring system in primiparous dairy heifers.

The objective was to validate the iVET® birth monitoring system and to determine if it reduced fetal death in primiparous dairy heifers over a 1-y interval. There were 359 pregnant heifers enrolled; 167 heifers in the iVET® group were monitored electronically and the remaining 192 (controls) were monitored visually for onset of Stage 2 labor, according to routine farm management. In addition, as a reference, all heifers were observed throughout the study by two independent investigators. Calves born dead or that died within 24 h after birth were defined as stillborn. The interval from appearance of the chorioallantoic sac to recognition of onset of calving in the control group averaged 21 min longer than the iVET® signal (p = 0.0001) and rate of fetal death was numerically lower in the iVET® group (8.9%) than in the control group (10.4%, p = 0.65). Interestingly, dystocia occurred more often in the iVET® group (58.3%) than in the control group (40.9%, p = 0.001). The iVET® system detected onset of Stage 2 labor earlier than conventional monitoring by farm staff. However, the device was lacking in several aspects and should be improved before its use in primiparous heifers can be recommended.

Early detection and treatment of lame cows. Effect on duration and prevalence of lesion-specific lameness.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of specific hoof lesions on the locomotion score (LS) as well as the effect of early detection and treatment on duration and prevalence of lesion-specific lameness. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In a dairy herd in Lower Saxony, Germany, with 144 lactating cows, claw trimming was performed by a professional claw trimmer at the beginning and the end of a 41-week trial period. Weekly a veterinarian assessed the LS according to Sprecher et al. (1997) in 99 cows. The front and hind claws of cows with an LS > 1 were examined and treated within 5 days. For individual diagnoses, the duration of lameness was calculated as the number of weeks from first treatment until recovery (LS = 1). RESULTS: In total, 580 examinations and treatments were performed on 94 cows. There were 189 new lameness cases with a total of 290 diagnoses. At the first treatment, 81.0% of the cows displayed an LS of 2. Cows with digital dermatitis (DD), heel horn erosion and white line disease (WLD) more often had an LS > 2 compared to cows with Rusterholz' sole ulcer, interdigital hyperplasia or inadequate claw length/posture (p < 0.05). Cows with only one affected leg, more often had an LS > 2 than cows with several affected legs (p < 0.1). Lameness caused by WLD and arthritis/periarthritis remained for the longest time period. The prevalence of sole haemorrhages and/or double soles, WLD, interdigital dermatitis and interdigital hyperplasia decreased significantly during the test period. Prevalence of sole ulcer (sole ulcer and Rusterholz' sole ulcer) and DD remained unaffected. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Locomotion score was affected by the type of claw/limb disorder and the number of diseased limbs. Regular locomotion scoring and continuous treatment of cows with an LS > 1 is associated with a decrease in the prevalence of several claw lesions. Therefore, prevalence of severe claw lesions like WLD, which was associated with a long duration of lameness, can be reduced. In contrast, for decreasing prevalence of digital dermatitis more than weekly treatment of every cow with LS > 1 is required. Preventive measures like footbaths or improved hygiene should accompany the individual animal treatment.

The effect of puerperal uterine disease on histopathologic findings and mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines of the endometrium in dairy cows.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of puerperal uterine disease on histopathologic findings and gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines in the endometrium of postpuerperal dairy cows; 49 lactating Holstein-Friesian cows were divided into two groups, one without (UD-; n = 29) and one with uterine disease (UD+; n = 21), defined as retained fetal membranes and/or clinical metritis. General clinical examination, vaginoscopy, transrectal palpation, and transrectal B-mode sonography were conducted on days 8, 11, 18, and 25 and then every 10 days until Day 65 (Day 0 = day of calving). The first endometrial sampling (ES1; swab and biopsy) was done during estrus around Day 42 and the second endometrial sampling (ES2) during the estrus after synchronization (cloprostenol between days 55 and 60 and GnRH 2 days later). The prevalence of histopathologic evidence of endometritis, according to the categories used here, and positive bacteriologic cultures was not affected by group (P > 0.05), but cows with uterine disease had a higher prevalence of chronic purulent endometritis (ES1; P = 0.07) and angiosclerosis (ES2; P ≤ 0.05) than healthy cows. Endometrial gene expression of IL1α (ES2), IL1ß (ES2), and TNFα (ES1 and ES2) was higher (P ≤ 0.05) in the UD+ group than in the UD- group. In conclusion, puerperal uterine disease had an effect on histopathologic parameters and on gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines in the endometrium of postpuerperal cows, indicating impaired clearance of uterine inflammation in cows with puerperal uterine disease.

Prevalence of cervicitis in dairy cows and its effect on reproduction.

The objective of this study was to determine whether cervicitis in dairy cows is an independent disease or occurs concomitantly with inflammation of the uterus, and to clarify possible effects of cervicitis on reproductive performance. Dairy cows (n = 416) from 33 dairy farms were examined by rectal palpation and vaginoscopy between 42 and 50 days postpartum. Inclusion criteria for this study were absence of abnormal vaginal discharge and abnormalities of the uterus (fluctuation) at rectal palpation. Cervicitis was diagnosed when the second cervical fold was swollen and prolapsed with (C2) or without (C1) reddening. Cytobrush samples from the uterus (n = 370) and the cervix (n = 402) were collected, and the percentage of neutrophils in the uterus (PMNU) and the cervix as indicators of inflammation (threshold: ≥5%) was determined. In addition, endometrial biopsies for histology were collected, 300 of which were suitable for evaluation. Cervicitis (C1/C2) was diagnosed in 253 of 416 (60.8%) of cows. Of these, the prolapsed cervical mucosa was hyperemic (C2) in 29.1% of cases. Of 370 available uterine cytology samples, 221 cows had a clinical cervicitis; however, 170 (76.9%) had PMNU less than 5%. Of 300 uterine histologic examinations, 82 (27.3%) did not reveal any abnormalities; the remaining cows either had uterine inflammation and/or degenerative uterine changes such as endometriosis and angiosclerosis. Furthermore, of 300 biopsied animals, 184 revealed a cervicitis (C1/C2); however, 30.4% of these animals had no histopathologic uterine findings. For further analysis, only animals either without histopathologic findings and normal uterine cytology or with solely endometritis (defined as PMNU ≥ 5% and/or positive histopathology of the uterine tissue) were evaluated (n = 157). Of these, 95 cows had cervicitis. Unexpectedly, 63 of 95 (66.3%) cows had cervicitis without endometritis. With regard to reproductive performance, days to first service were not affected by cervicitis. Number of days open in animals with cervicitis but without endometritis tended to be lower than in cows with cervicitis plus endometritis (P = 0.092). Also, number of days open relative to percentage of neutrophils greater than 5% was lower when the cervical compared to the uterine mucosa was affected (P < 0.05). Total conception and pregnancy rates of animals 200 days into lactation decreased significantly in cows with severe cervical inflammation (C2). In conclusion, the results of this study suggested that cervicitis occurs independent of endometritis, and a higher degree of cervicitis is associated with poorer reproductive performance.

Energy balance in transition cows and its association with health, reproduction and milk production.

OBJECTIVE: It was the purpose of this study to determine the effects of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentrations at different time periods of the transition period as well as lactation number on metabolism, health, reproduction and milk production in dairy cows. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This trial was conducted in a single dairy herd located in Northern Germany. Of the herd, which comprised 330 lactating Holstein cows housed in a free stall barn and fed a total mixed ration (TMR), 83 primiparous and multiparous cows were randomly selected. Animals were checked for body condition score (BCS), locomotion score, calving data, quality of colostrum, reproductive measures, daily rectal temperature of the first 10 days post-partum (p. p.), health data and culling rates up to 200 days in milk (DIM) as well as milk production until 305 DIM. Three different time periods were considered: 3 and 1 week ante partum (a. p.); partus and 1 week p. p.; 3 weeks p. p. RESULTS: Animals with NEFA concentrations ≥ 0.4 mmol/l ante partum had a higher risk of no ovarian activity in week 5 p. p. and of subclinical ketosis post partum than cows with lower NEFA concentrations (p < 0.05). Cows with NEFA concentrations ≥ 1.1 mmol/l in week 1 p. p., in comparison to those with lower NEFA concentrations, showed a higher prevalence of clinical ketosis (24.1% vs. 5.9%), subclinical ketosis (62.1% vs. 34.0%) and culling rate within 200 DIM (34.5% vs. 14.0%) (p    <   0.05). Cows with NEFA concentrations ≥ 0.3 mmol/l at week 3 p. p. had higher 100- and 305-day milk yields than cows with lower NEFA concentrations (p < 0.05). First lactating heifers were at higher risk to loose body condition ante partum, of dystocia, fever within the first 10 DIM, metritis, clinical and subclinical ketosis as well as to develop a disease within the first 30 DIM (p < 0.05). Multipara were more likely to loose body condition after calving, to a prolonged calving to first service interval and to higher milk yields (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: In conclusion increased NEFA concentrations during the transition period as well as parity can have an influence on health, production and reproduction of dairy cows.

[Evidence-based aspects of clinical mastitis treatment]. / Aspekte einer evidenzbasierten Therapie klinischer Mastitiden.

Mastitis is one of the most common and expensive diseases in dairy cattle. The decision to treat clinical mastitis is usually made without any knowledge of the etiology, and can therefore only be evidence-based to a limited extent. Evidence-based medicine relies essentially on a combination of one's own clinical competence and scientific findings. In mastitis therapy, those insights depend mostly on pathogen-specific factors. Therefore, in evidence-based therapeutic decision making the pathogen identification should serve as a basis for the consideration of scientifically validated therapeutic concepts. The present paper considers evidence-based treatment of clinical mastitis based on a literature review. The authors conclude that an anti-inflammatory treatment using an NSAID should be conducted regardless of the pathogen. However, the choice of an antibiotic therapy depends on the mastitis causative pathogen, clinical symptoms and the animal itself. In principle, a local antibiotic treatment should be chosen for mild and moderate mastitis. It should be noted, that the benefit of an antibiotic therapy for coliform infections is questionable. With knowledge concerning the pathogen, it appears entirely reasonable to refrain from an antibiotic therapy. For severe (i.   e. feverish) mastitis, a parenteral antibiotic therapy should be selected. An extension of the antibiotic therapy beyond the manufacturer's information is only reasonable for streptococcal infections. It is important to make the decision on a prolonged antibiotic therapy only with the knowledge of the mastitis-causative pathogen. In terms of the therapy of a staphylococcus or streptococcus infection, a narrow-spectrum antibiotic from the penicillin family should be adopted when selecting the active agents.

Factors affecting the probability of bacteriological cure of bovine mastitis.

The aim of this study was to review factors affecting the probability of cure of bovine mastitis and thereby establish criteria for deciding whether to treat or cull individual animals. A further objective was to avoid redundant treatment with antibiotics so as to reduce the risk of pathogen resistance and enhance economic benefit. In evaluating success of therapy, bacteriological cure is the standard type of cure and is defined as elimination of mastitis-causing pathogens from the mammary gland. Administration of antibiotics is considered reasonable only when there is a prospect of bacteriological cure. In addition to age of the affected cow, the history of mastitis, number of infected quarters and somatic cell count affect the probability of bacteriological cure. Identifying and characterising chronic mastitis, which causes enormous production losses, are especially important to prevent unnecessary treatment and to decide whether or not to cull. To our knowledge, this is the first work providing a complete list of factors that have been confirmed in scientific literature to influence the probability of cure. This review should support farmers and veterinarians in deciding between culling and administering appropriate therapy to an affected animal.

Effect of suppression of postpartum ovulation on endometrial inflammation in dairy cows.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of time of first postpartum ovulation on endometrial inflammation in dairy cows with and without uterine disease during the early puerperal period. Transvaginal follicular puncture (FP) was carried out to suppress postpartum ovulation and formation of a CL until Day 42. Fifty-three lactating Holstein Friesian cows were divided into four groups on the basis of presence (UD+) or absence (UD-) of uterine disease, which was defined as retained fetal membranes and/or metritis, and whether FP had (FP+) or had not been (FP-) carried out. This resulted in the following groups: UD-FP- (n = 15), UD-FP+ (n = 13), UD+FP- (n = 13), and UD+FP+ (n = 12). Cloprostenol was given on Days 55 to 60 postpartum, and GnRH was administered 2 days later for synchronization of ovulation. In the FP- groups, endometrial swab and biopsy samples were collected during the second estrus (approximately Day 40) and during the estrus after synchronization. In the FP+ groups, the same samples were collected during the first estrus (approximately Day 49) and during the estrus after synchronization. The prevalence of positive bacteriologic cultures of the endometrium was not affected by FP (P > 0.05). Histologic signs of endometritis were more severe in UD+FP- cows at second sampling than in UD+FP+ cows (P ≤ 0.05). Endometrial expression of IL1α (in UD- after first sampling and in UD+ after second sampling) and IL1ß (in UD- and UD+ after first sampling) was higher (P ≤ 0.05) in FP- cows than in FP+ cows. Regardless of group, cows with histopathologic evidence of endometritis had higher expression (P ≤ 0.05) of IL1α, IL1ß, IL6, and TNFα than cows without endometritis. In conclusion, suppression of early ovulation by transvaginal FP enhances clearance of uterine inflammation in postpartum cows.

The somatotropic axis during the physiological estrus cycle in dairy heifers--Effect on hepatic expression of GHR and SOCS2.

Pituitary growth hormone (GH) release and hepatic insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) production increase after an injection of 17ß-estradiol (E2) in ovariectomized dairy cattle. However, whether endogenous sexual steroid hormones also influence the hepatic GH receptor (GHR) signaling pathway during a physiological estrus cycle remains unclear. The aim of this study was to analyze the hepatic GHR signaling pathway during the luteal phase and after a period of increased E2 concentrations (after ovulation) as well as in 7 heifers before ovulation. Ovarian ultrasounds were performed daily during repeated physiological cycles (n = 56) of 30 Holstein Friesian heifers to determine ovulation [before ovulation (n = 7, bOv) and after ovulation 24-60 h after the appearance of estrus signs (n = 49, aOv)] and luteal phase (CLP; d 12 ± 1 after ovulation). Blood samples and liver biopsies were obtained, and blood concentrations of E2, P4, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II, and GH were measured. In the liver biopsies, we determined mRNA expression of the estrogen receptor α (ERα), GHR, Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), signal transducer and activator of transcription 5B (STAT5B), suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)2 and 3, IGF-I, and IGF-II by quantitative reverse transcription-PCR. The concentration of E2 was higher bOv than aOv and CLP, as expected. The concentrations of IGF-I and GH were higher bOv and aOv compared with CLP. In contrast, concentrations of IGF-II were lower aOv compared with bOv and CLP. The mRNA expression of GHR was higher in liver biopsies obtained bOv compared with aOv and CLP. Notably, the expression of SOCS2 was higher bOv than aOv and in the CLP. Increased hepatic expression of SOCS2 during estrus was detectable when IGF-I concentrations were high; this result might indicate that SOCS2 expression attenuates the GHR signal transduction pathway during the phase of increased pituitary GH release. In conclusion, hepatic GHR and SOCS2 mRNA expression appeared to be promptly and sensitively regulated by increased E2 levels before ovulation of dairy heifers.