Applying blood-brain barrier in vitro models to study the influence of drugs on endothelial cells--effects of selected COX-inhibitors.

The influence of three cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors (indometacin, lornoxicam and celecoxib) with different COX-1/COX-2 profiles on endothelial cells using in vitro blood-brain barrier (BBB) models was investigated. For the experiments two BBB mimicking cell lines (PBMEC/C1-2 and ECV304) and primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were used. In preliminary tests the two cell lines and HUVEC were characterized by cell ELISA in respect of the presence of the tight junction proteins occludin and zonula occludens protein-1 (ZO-1), the adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 and the endothelial marker von Willebrand factor (vWF). Then, the influence of indometacin, lornoxicam and celecoxib on the expression of occludin, ZO-1, ICAM-1 and vWF of the two cell lines and HUVEC was analysed by cell ELISA. The COX inhibitors caused an effect on PBMEC/C1-2 and HUVEC but no influence was observed on ECV304. The results of PBMEC/C1-2 and HUVEC indicated that in comparable therapeutical concentrations celecoxib had a higher potential to impair endothelial cells and to decrease the expression of occludin, ZO-1 and ICAM-1 than indometacin and lornoxicam.

A highly conserved proapoptotic gene, IKIP, located next to the APAF1 gene locus, is regulated by p53.

We describe here the identification and initial characterization of a novel human gene termed IKIP (I kappa B kinase interacting protein) that is located on chromosome 12 in close proximity to APAF1 (apoptotic protease-activating factor-1). IKIP and APAF1 share a common 488 bp promoter from which the two genes are transcribed in opposite directions. Three IKIP transcripts are generated by differential splicing and alternative exon usage that do not show significant homology to other genes in the databases. Similar to APAF1, expression of IKIP is enhanced by X-irradiation, and both genes are dependent on p53. Moreover, IKIP promotes apoptosis when transfected into endothelial cells. We conclude that IKIP is a novel p53 target gene with proapoptotic function.

Subcellular localisation of Cdc25A determines cell fate.

Cell division cycle 25A (Cdc25A) was shown to colocalise both with nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins. Recently, we have demonstrated that overexpressed Cdc25A promoted the survival of rat 423 cells through indirect activation of PKB-protein kinase B. Using a Cdc25A:ER fusion protein, which can be shuttled from the cytoplasm into the nucleus, the present investigation evidences that the antiapoptotic effect of Cdc25A was restricted to its cytoplasmic localisation in rat 423 cells. In contrast, nuclear Cdc25A overexpression caused dephosphorylation and nuclear retention of the proapoptotic transcription factor Forkhead in rhabdomyosarcoma-like 1 (FKHRL1) in human N.1 ovarian carcinoma cells. This resulted in the increased constitutive expression of the FKHRL1 targets Fas ligand and Bim, and promoted apoptosis. Thus, the Cdc25A oncogene, which was found to be frequently overexpressed in certain human cancers, can increase or decrease the susceptibility to apoptosis depending on the cell-type-specific subcellular distribution.

Adenovirus-mediated expression of a mutant IkappaB kinase 2 inhibits the response of endothelial cells to inflammatory stimuli.

In a variety of cell types, the transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) functions as a mediator of stress and immune responses. In endothelial cells (ECs), it controls the expression of genes encoding, eg, cytokines, cell adhesion molecules, and procoagulatory proteins. This study investigates the effect of NF-kappaB suppression on several pathophysiologic functions of ECs, including inflammation, coagulation, and angiogenesis. A recombinant adenovirus was generated for expression of a dominant negative (dn) mutant of IkappaB kinase 2 (IKK2), a kinase that acts as an upstream activator of NF-kappaB. dnIKK2 inhibited NF-kappaB, resulting in strongly reduced nuclear translocation and DNA binding activity of the transcription factor and lack of expression of several proinflammatory markers, including E-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, and interleukin-8. Concomitantly, inhibition of leukocyte binding to dnIKK2-expressing ECs could be demonstrated in a cell adhesion assay. Furthermore, expression of tissue factor as well as the ability to form capillary tubes in a matrigel assay was impaired in dnIKK2-expressing ECs. These data demonstrate that NF-kappaB is of central importance not only for the inflammatory response but also for a number of other EC functions. Therefore, this transcription factor as well as its upstream regulatory signaling molecules may represent favorable targets for therapeutic interference.

The transcription factor NF-kappa B and the regulation of vascular cell function.

A variety of pathophysiological situations that affect cells of the vasculature, including endothelial and smooth muscle cells, leads to the expression of genes such as adhesion molecules and chemokines that are dependent on members of the nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB family of transcription factors. The corresponding gene products mediate important biological functions such as immune and inflammatory reactions, smooth muscle cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. The beneficial and usually transient NF-kappaB-dependent gene expression may be exaggerated in pathological situations and results in damage to the vessel wall and impaired vascular cell function. In this review, we will capitalize on the favorable and adverse roles of NF-kappaB in the context of vascular disease, eg, chronic and localized inflammation, arteriosclerosis, and neoangiogenesis.

Activation of NF-kappa B by XIAP, the X chromosome-linked inhibitor of apoptosis, in endothelial cells involves TAK1.

Exposure of endothelial and many other cell types to tumor necrosis factor alpha generates both apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signals. The anti-apoptotic pathway leads to activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB that regulates the expression of genes such as A20 or members of the IAP gene family that protect cells from tumor necrosis factor alpha-mediated apoptosis. In turn, some anti-apoptotic genes have been shown to modulate NF-kappaB activity. Here we demonstrate that XIAP, a NF-kappaB-dependent member of the IAP gene family, is a strong stimulator of NF-kappaB. Expression of XIAP leads to increased nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of NF-kappaB via a novel signaling pathway that involves the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase TAK1. We show that TAK1 physically interacts with NIK and with IKK2, and both XIAP or active TAK1 can stimulate IKK2 kinase activity. Thus, XIAP may be part of a system of regulatory loops that balance a cell's response to environmental stimuli.

Dynamics of NF kappa B and Ikappa Balpha studied with green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion proteins. Investigation of GFP-p65 binding to DNa by fluorescence resonance energy transfer.

We investigated the dynamics of nuclear transcription factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) by using fusion proteins of the p65 subunit with mutants of green fluorescent protein (GFP). GFP-NF-kappaB chimeras were functional both in vitro and in vivo, as demonstrated by electrophoretic mobility shift assays and reporter gene studies. GFP-p65 was regulated by IkappaBalpha similar to wild type p65 and associated with its inhibitor even if both proteins were linked to a GFP protein. This finding was also verified by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy and studies showing mutual regulation of the intracellular localization of both GFP chimerae. Incubation of GFP-p65 with fluorescently labeled NF-kappaB-binding oligonucleotides also resulted in FRET. This effect was DNA sequence-specific and exhibited saturation characteristics. Application of stopped-flow fluorometry to measure the kinetics of FRET between GFP-p65 and oligonucleotides revealed a fast increase of acceptor fluorescence with a plateau after about 10 ms. The observed initial binding rate showed a temperature-dependent linear correlation with the oligonucleotide concentration. The association constant calculated according to pre-steady state kinetics was 3 x 10(6) m(-1), although equilibrium binding studies implied significantly higher values. This observation suggests that the binding process involves a rapid association with a rather high off-rate followed by a conformational change resulting in an increase of the association constant.

The NF-kappaB/Rel family of transcription factors in oncogenic transformation and apoptosis.

Recent progress in the identification and functional analysis of protein kinases and adapter molecules that lead to activation of NF-kappaB family transcription factors has lead to a quite detailed understanding of one of the major signalling pathways that mediate a cell's response to environmental stress in a variety of host-defense situations. NF-kappaB is recognized as a key regulatory factor mediating the coordinate expression of genes which are part of the cellular machinery that functions to protect an organism against damage posed by physical, chemical or microbial noxae. In a wide variety of patho-physiological situations such as immune and inflammatory reactions, the expression of cytokines, interleukins and adhesion molecules in cells of the immune system including T and B cells, endothelial as well as phagocytic/antigen presenting cells is to a large extent regulated by NF-kappaB. Moreover, this transcription factor appears to play a central role in the regulation of apoptosis, an important cellular program that decides upon a cell's fate not only during embryonic development but also on its way from normal to the transformed phenotype. Thus, NF-kappaB has emerged also as an attractive target for therapeutic interference in a variety of pathological situations, including chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, HIV infection and cancer.

A transcriptional repressor of the tissue factor gene in endothelial cells.

Tissue factor, the high-affinity receptor and cofactor for the plasma serine protease VII/VIIa, is the primary cellular initiator of the blood coagulation cascade. Inside the vasculature, expression of the tissue factor gene must be tightly controlled. Whereas the endothelium normally does not express tissue factor, on stimulation with inflammatory cytokines or endotoxin the gene is transcriptionally upregulated leading to a procoagulant state. We have now detected a repressive cis-acting element in the tissue factor promoter that downmodulates tissue factor transcription in endothelial cells. In reporter gene assays, deletion of this element leads to an increase of tissue factor transcription and insertion of a trimerized site reduces transcription. Specific protein/DNA complexes are formed on the element with nuclear extracts in electrophoretic mobility shift assays and cross-linking of the proteins followed by SDS-PAGE detects the presence of at least 2 subunits of approximately 40 and 60 kDa, respectively. After transfection of different cell types with the reporter genes, the suppressive effect of the element can only be revealed in endothelial cells. These data suggest that this element represents a novel transcription factor target sequence that functions to suppress expression of the tissue factor gene, preferentially in endothelial cells thereby supporting a noncoagulant state.

Gem, a GTP-binding protein from mitogen-stimulated T cells, is induced in endothelial cells upon activation by inflammatory cytokines.

Using differential screening of cytokine-activated versus resting porcine aortic endothelial cells (PAEC), we have isolated a member of the family of Ras/GTP-binding proteins. The cDNA encodes a 34-kilodalton protein showing 97% homology to Gem, a gene recently isolated from activated T cells, likely representing its porcine homologue. The amino acid sequence differs from the Ras consensus by the absence of a C-terminal isoprenylation site and a glycine to glutamic acid substitution in the third GTP-binding domain. We report here, that pigGem mRNA is strongly inducible in PAEC upon activation by either IL-1 alpha, TNF alpha or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Low constitutive expression is found in several organs. Epitope-tagged pigGem transfected into endothelial cells (EC) localizes to the cytoplasm and to the inner side of the plasma membrane. Structural features of Gem and its inducibility apparently restricted to T cells and endothelial cells, together with Rad, a GTPase overexpressed in skeletal muscle cells of type II diabetic individuals, define a new branch within the superfamily of GTP-binding proteins.

Inhibition of endothelial cell activation by adenovirus-mediated expression of I kappa B alpha, an inhibitor of the transcription factor NF-kappa B.

During the inflammatory response, endothelial cells (EC) transiently upregulate a set of genes encoding, among others, cell adhesion molecules and chemotactic cytokines that together mediate the interaction of the endothelium with cells of the immune system. Gene upregulation is mediated predominantly at the transcriptional level and in many cases involves the transcription factor nuclear factor (NF) kappa B. We have tested the concept of inhibiting the inflammatory response by overexpression of a specific inhibitor of NF-kappaB, I kappa B alpha. A recombinant adenovirus expressing I kappa B alpha was constructed (rAd.I kappa B alpha) and used to infect EC of human and porcine origin. Ectopic expression of IkappaBalpha resulted in marked, and in some cases complete, reduction of the expression of several markers of EC activation, including vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, interleukins 1, 6, 8, and tissue factor. Overexpressed I kappa B alpha inhibited NF-kappa B specifically since (a) in electrophoretic mobility shift assay, NF-kappa B but not AP-1 binding activity was inhibited, and (b) von Willebrand factor and prostacyclin secretion that occur independently of NF-kappa B, remained unaffected. Functional studies of leukocyte adhesion demonstrated strong inhibition of HL-60 adhesion to I kappa B alpha-expressing EC. These findings suggest that NF-kappa B could be an attractive target for therapeutic intervention in a variety of inflammatory diseases, including xenograft rejection.

Regulation of the tissue factor promoter in endothelial cells. Binding of NF kappa B-, AP-1-, and Sp1-like transcription factors.

Tissue factor is up-regulated on endothelial cells and monocytes in response to cytokines and endotoxin and is the main trigger of the extrinsic pathway of the coagulation cascade. We have isolated the porcine tissue factor gene and studied the regulation of the promoter, which has not been investigated previously in endothelial cells. Comparison of the promoter sequences with the respective human and murine genes reveals short stretches of homology, which encompass potential binding sites for AP-1, NF kappa B, and Sp1 transcription factors. Using DNase I footprinting, we detect binding of nuclear factors to these promoter elements. Transfection experiments demonstrate that a 300-base pair fragment containing the conserved elements can mediate induced transcription and that the NF kappa B-like element is essential. In accordance, electrophoretic mobility shift assays show a strong increase in the binding of factors to the NF kappa B-like site following induction. We further provide evidence that RelA (p65), c-Rel, and possibly novel polypeptides bind to the tissue factor NF kappa B element. In addition, we show constitutive binding of members of the Fos/Jun and Sp1 families to the AP-1 and Sp1 sites, respectively. We propose a concerted action of AP-1-, NF kappa B-, and Sp1-like factors in transcription from the tissue factor promoter in endothelial cells.

NK-kappa B subunit-specific regulation of the I kappa B alpha promoter.

Stimulation of endothelial cells by cytokines and bacterial lipopolysaccharide leads to activation of the transcription factor NF-kappa B. NF-kappa B in turn regulates the expression of several genes involved in the inflammatory reaction, including cell adhesion molecules, interleukins, and transcription factors. One of these induced genes encodes an inhibitor of NF-kappa B, ECI-6/I kappa B alpha, that contains in its 5' regulatory region six consensus binding sites for NF-kappa B. We demonstrate here that these sites display striking differences in their ability in vitro to bind to various NF-kappa B subunits. In vivo, all six sites contribute, though to varying degrees, to transcription from the ECI-6/I kappa B alpha promoter, as demonstrated by deletion and mutation analysis. Among the NF-kappa B subunits tested p65, the p65/p50 heterodimer and, to a lesser extent, c-Rel, are able to activate transcription, whereas p50 or p50/Re1B were inactive. Since many genes regulated by NF-kappa B contain only one or two DNA-binding sites for this transcription factor, the presence of six functional NF-kappa B-binding sites in the ECI-6/I kappa B alpha promoter represents a unique feature of this gene.

Two major phosphoproteins of Plasmodium falciparum are heat shock proteins.

Two major phosphoproteins of Plasmodium falciparum could be identified by partial amino acid sequencing as the plasmodial members of the hsp 70 heat shock protein family, Pfhsp and Pfgrp. According to phosphoamino acid analyses of Pfhsp and Pfgrp isolated from [32P]orthophosphate-labeled malarial cultures, both proteins were phosphorylated in Ser and Thr. While Pfhsp contains higher amounts of labeled phosphoserine, Pfgrp contains higher amounts of phosphothreonine. Phosphorylation of both proteins increased throughout the entire erythrocytic growth cycle. At the trophozoite and schizont stages Pfhsp and Pfgrp are the most prominent phosphoproteins of Plasmodium falciparum. Using multiply redundant oligonucleotides directed against the N-terminus of Pfgrp we cloned and sequenced the entire Pfgrp gene. The gene encodes a product with a predicted length of 652 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence has identities of 65.5% and 65.0% to the human and rat grp78 proteins, respectively. Pfgrp possesses a classical N-terminal leader sequence. The published grp78 related gene sequences of Plasmodium falciparum are all fragments of the same plasmodial gene.

Complementary DNA for human glioblastoma-derived T cell suppressor factor, a novel member of the transforming growth factor-beta gene family.

Human glioblastoma cells secrete a peptide, termed glioblastoma-derived T cell suppressor factor (G-TsF), which has suppressive effects on interleukin-2-dependent T cell growth. As shown here, complementary DNA for G-TsF reveals that G-TsF shares 71% amino acid homology with transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). In analogy to TGF-beta it is apparently synthesized as the carboxy-terminal end of a precursor polypeptide which undergoes proteolytic cleavage to yield the 112 amino-acid-long mature form of G-TsF. Comparison of the amino-terminal sequence of G-TsF with that of porcine TGF-beta 2 and bovine cartilage-inducing factor B shows complete homology, which indicates that we have cloned the human analogue of these factors. It is tempting to consider a role for G-TsF in tumor growth where it may enhance tumor cell proliferation in an autocrine way and/or reduce immunosurveillance of tumor development.

T cell suppressor factor from human glioblastoma cells is a 12.5-kd protein closely related to transforming growth factor-beta.

T cell suppressor factor produced by human glioblastoma cells inhibits T cell proliferation in vitro and more specifically interferes with interleukin-2 (IL-2)-dependent T cell growth. Here we report the purification of this factor from conditioned medium of the human glioblastoma cell line 308. Amino-terminal sequence analysis of the 12.5-kd protein demonstrates that eight out of the first 20 amino acids are identical to human transforming growth factor-beta. Purified glioblastoma-derived T cell suppressor factor and transforming growth factor-beta from porcine platelets inhibit both IL-2-induced proliferation of ovalbumin-specific T helper cells and lectin-induced thymocyte proliferation with similar specific activities. If released by glioblastoma cells in vivo, the factor may contribute to impaired immunosurveillance and to the cellular immunodeficiency state detected in the patients.

Complementary DNA for human T-cell cyclophilin.

Complementary DNA encoding human cyclophilin, a specific cyclosporin A-binding protein, has been isolated from the leukemic T-cell line Jurkat and sequenced. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence with the previously determined sequence of bovine thymus cyclophilin reveals only three differences: an additional amino acid at the carboxy terminus end and two internal changes. RNA transfer blot analysis indicates an mRNA size of approximately 1 kb for human T-cell cyclophilin. Phytohaemagglutinin and phorbol myristate acetate induction of T cells treated or not with cyclosporin A affects only marginally the level of cyclophilin mRNA. Southern blot analysis of human genomic DNA digested with different restriction enzymes strongly suggests the existence of a multigene family for cyclophilin.

Globin RNA transcription: a possible termination site and demonstration of transcriptional control correlated with altered chromatin structure.

The transcription unit that encodes beta-globin (major) mRNA has been examined by analysis of nascent labeled RNA from the nuclei of mouse erythroleukemia cells treated with agents that induce beta-globin formation. More than 95% of the time, transcription appears to terminate within a region 1400 +/- 100 nucleotides downstream from the poly(A) site. The nuclei of mouse erythroleukemia cells treated with agents that induce beta-globin synthesis showed a 10 to 20 fold stimulation of transcription assayed by chain elongation of beta-globin RNA sequences, including sequences downstream from the poly(A) site. Associated with the increase in transcription was a generalized increase in sensitivity to DNAase treatment of globin genomic DNA in whole nuclei. A DNAase I-hypersensitive site in the vicinity of the cap site was also found to be prominent in induced cells.

Reaction of immune sera with components of the human malarial parasite, Plasmodium falciparum.

Human and monkey sera from individuals exposed to Plasmodium falciparum were characterized by indirect immunofluorescence, in vitro parasite growth inhibition, and immunoprecipitation of 125I-labeled parasite antigens followed by analytical sodium dodecyl-sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). In general there was a good correlation between fluorescence titer and the ability of a serum to inhibit parasite growth in vitro. Exceptions were found, however. Some variance was seen in the ability of a given serum to inhibit different strains of the parasite. The significance of this is unknown. The proteins bound by human sera with high and low in vitro inhibitory capacities were compared by SDS-PAGE. The human sera which did not inhibit parasite growth in vitro well differed from those which did by failing to efficiently bind certain parasite components having molecular weights in the range of 200,000, 70,000-85,000, and 45,000.