Inhibition of calcium/calmodulin kinase II alpha subunit expression results in epileptiform activity in cultured hippocampal neurons.

Several models that develop epileptiform discharges and epilepsy have been associated with a decrease in the activity of calmodulin-dependent kinase II. However, none of these studies has demonstrated a causal relationship between a decrease in calcium/calmodulin kinase II activity and the development of seizure activity. The present study was conducted to determine the effect of directly reducing calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase activity on the development of epileptiform discharges in hippocampal neurons in culture. Complimentary oligonucleotides specific for the alpha subunit of the calcium/calmodulin kinase were used to decrease the expression of the enzyme. Reduction in kinase expression was confirmed by Western analysis, immunocytochemistry, and exogenous substrate phosphorylation. Increased neuronal excitability and frank epileptiform discharges were observed after a significant reduction in calmodulin kinase II expression. The epileptiform activity was a synchronous event and was not caused by random neuronal firing. Furthermore, the magnitude of decreased kinase expression correlated with the increased neuronal excitability. The data suggest that decreased calmodulin kinase II activity may play a role in epileptogenesis and the long-term plasticity changes associated with the development of pathological seizure activity and epilepsy.

The suppression of testis-brain RNA binding protein and kinesin heavy chain disrupts mRNA sorting in dendrites.

Ribonucleoprotein particles (RNPs) are thought to be key players in somato-dendritic sorting of mRNAs in CNS neurons and are implicated in activity-directed neuronal remodeling. Here, we use reporter constructs and gel mobility shift assays to show that the testis brain RNA-binding protein (TB-RBP) associates with mRNPs in a sequence (Y element) dependent manner. Using antisense oligonucleotides (anti-ODN), we demonstrate that blocking the TB-RBP Y element binding site disrupts and mis-localizes mRNPs containing (alpha)-calmodulin dependent kinase II (alpha)-CAMKII) and ligatin mRNAs. In addition, we show that suppression of kinesin heavy chain motor protein alters only the localization of (alpha)-CAMKII mRNA. Thus, differential sorting of mRNAs involves multiple mRNPs and selective motor proteins permitting localized mRNAs to utilize common mechanisms for shared steps.

Phenylephrine induces delayed cardioprotection against necrosis without amelioration of stunning.

BACKGROUND: Alpha-adrenergic stimulation induces protection in reperfused ischemic (I/R) myocardium 24 hours later. We tested the hypothesis that phenylephrine improves dysfunction after global I/R by limiting cell death not stunning. METHODS: Rabbits were pretreated with either phenylephrine or vehicle. Twenty-four hours later, isolated hearts underwent either 45 (infarction protocol) or 20 minutes (stunning protocol) of global ischemia before 2 hours of reperfusion (n = 6 per group). Cell death was determined by triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining (infarction) and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) (apoptosis). RESULTS: Compared with vehicle, phenylephrine pretreatment improved post-I/R-developed pressures in hearts after infarction (53.2 +/- 4.0 vs 35.8 +/- 4.1 mm Hg, p = 0.01) but not stunning protocol (64.3 +/- 8.9 vs 57.7 +/- 6.2 mm Hg, p = NS). The improved developed pressure was due to better diastolic recovery. Systolic pressures were similar between groups. Phenylephrine markedly decreased infarction (9.0 +/- 1.9% vs 40.8 +/- 1.8% for vehicle, p < 0.001) and TUNEL-positive staining. Stunned hearts of either group had less than 3% infarction and no apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS: Phenylephrine pretreatment 24 hours before global I/R improves function by limiting infarction but not stunning.

Delayed myocardial preconditioning by alpha1-adrenoceptors involves inhibition of apoptosis.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have demonstrated that alpha1-adrenoceptor activation increases myocardial resistance to ischemic injury 24 hours later. Here we tested the hypothesis that delayed protection is associated with limited infarction and involves altered expression of pro-apoptotic and/or anti-apoptotic proteins. METHODS: Rabbits were treated with phenylephrine or an equivalent volume of vehicle (n = 6 per group). Twenty-four hours after pretreatment, isolated hearts were perfused with a bovine erythrocyte suspension in modified Krebs solution, subjected to 45 minutes of global ischemia (37 C), and reperfused for 120 minutes. Infarct size was determined by triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining. Apoptosis was quantified by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated dUTP nick end labeling. Left ventricular tissue from separate groups of animals (n = 5 per group), 24 hours after pretreatment with phenylephrine or vehicle but without ischemia and reperfusion, was analyzed by Western blotting for content of the anti-apoptotic protein, bclx, and pro-apoptotic protein, bax. RESULTS: Isolated hearts after phenylephrine pretreatment had increased end-reperfusion developed pressures (56.8 +/- 4.9 vs 36.2 +/- 3.9 mm Hg for vehicle, P =.008) and decreased elevated end-diastolic pressures (26.7 +/- 4.5 vs 42.3 +/- 5.0 mm Hg for vehicle, P =.04). Phenylephrine pretreatment abrogated infarction (9.9 +/- 2.4% vs 42.6 +/- 6.3% for vehicle, P =.002) and reduced the number of apoptotic nuclei (24 +/- 4.8 vs 51 +/- 4.6 for vehicle, P = .038). Analysis by Western blotting showed that the ratio of bclx to bax protein increased in phenylephrine-pretreated hearts (2.65 +/- 0.5 vs 1.0 +/- 0.1 for vehicle, P =.008). CONCLUSION: Delayed myocardial protection to infarction mediated by alpha1-adrenoceptor activation involves an increased bclx/bax ratio, thereby limiting apoptotic cell death.

Acute brain death alters left ventricular myocardial gene expression.

OBJECTIVES: The depressed myocardial function observed in brain dead organ donors has been attributed to massive sympathetic discharge and catecholamine cardiotoxicity. Because elevated catecholamines are associated with altered myocardial gene expression, we investigated whether acute brain death from increased intracranial pressure alters the expression of myocardial gene products important in contractility. METHODS: A balloon expansion model was used to increase intracranial pressure in rabbits (n = 22). At timed intervals after brain death, mean arterial pressure, heart rate, electrocardiograms, histologic myocardial injury, and systemic catecholamines were assessed. Messenger RNA levels encoding myofilaments, adrenergic receptors, sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins, transcription factors, and stress-induced programs were measured with blot hybridization of total left ventricular RNA. RESULTS: Increased intracranial pressure induced an immediate pressor response that temporally coincided with diffuse electrocardiographic ST segment changes. Systemic epinephrine and norepinephrine levels concurrently increased (5- to 8-fold within 1 minute), then fell below baseline within 2 hours, and remained depressed at 4 hours. By 1 hour, histologic injury was evident. Four hours after the induction of increased intracranial pressure, levels of messenger RNA-encoding skeletal and cardiac alpha-actins, egr-1, and heat shock protein 70 were significantly increased. Sham-operated animals did not exhibit these changes. CONCLUSIONS: Select changes in myocardial gene expression occur in response to increased intracranial pressure and implicate ventricular remodeling in the myocardial dysfunction associated with acute brain death.

Decreased expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 in stunned myocardium.

Ultrastructural studies of stunned myocardium have shown disorganization and loss of extracellular collagen and increased collagenase activity early after ischemia and reperfusion. The interplay between matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) regulates the turnover of cardiac extracellular matrix fibrillar collagens. However, the gene expression of MMP-1 and TIMP-1 in stunned myocardium is not known. Here, we determined whether altered expression of MMP-1 and TIMP-1 occurs in globally stunned hearts. An isolated nonworking rabbit heart preparation, perfused with a bovine erythrocyte suspension in modified Krebs solution, was used. Two groups were studied: the stunned group was subjected to 20 min of normothermic global ischemia followed by 120 min of normal reperfusion (n = 8), and the control group underwent 140 min of uninterrupted perfusion (n = 7). The developed pressures at the end of reperfusion for ischemic and control hearts were 67.0 +/- 2.73 and 83.1 +/- 1.52 mm Hg (P < 0. 006) respectively. Ribonuclease protection assays of total left ventricular RNA using riboprobes for MMP-1, TIMP-1, and 18S rRNA were performed. A significant decrease (twofold, P < 0.03) in TIMP-1 gene expression was found in the stunned hearts, while MMP-1 mRNA expression was unchanged. Thus, in early stunning, the decrease in TIMP-1 expression could tip the balance favoring enhanced metalloproteinase activity, promoting collagen turnover, and initiating extracellular matrix remodeling. This may contribute to delayed recovery from myocardial stunning.

Long-lasting reduction of inhibitory function and gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor subunit mRNA expression in a model of temporal lobe epilepsy.

This study evaluated hippocampal inhibitory function and the level of expression of gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor mRNA in an in vivo model of epilepsy. Chronic recurrent limbic seizures were induced in rats using injections of pilocarpine. Electrophysiological studies performed on hippocampal slices prepared from control and epileptic animals 1 to 2 months after pilocarpine injections demonstrated a significant hyperexcitability in the epileptic animals. Reduced levels of mRNA expression for the alpha 2 and alpha 5 subunits of the GABAA receptors were evident in the CA1, CA2, and CA3 regions of the hippocampus of epileptic animals. No decrease in mRNA encoding alpha 1, beta 2, or gamma 2 GABAA receptor subunits was observed. In addition, no change in the mRNA levels of alpha CaM kinase II was seen. Selective decreases in mRNA expression did not correlate with neuronal cell loss. The results indicate that selective, long-lasting reduction of GABAA subunit mRNA expression and increased excitability, possibly reflecting loss of GABAergic inhibition, occur in an in vivo model of partial complex epilepsy.

GABAA alpha 2 mRNA levels are decreased following induction of spontaneous epileptiform discharges in hippocampal-entorhinal cortical slices.

Exposure of hippocampal slices to Mg2+ free media (0 Mg) has been shown to trigger full production of stimulus-induced seizure activity after restoration of physiological conditions [1]. In the present study employing hippocampal entorhinal cortical slices (HEC), spontaneous epileptiform discharges (SEDs) were induced using 0 Mg treatment following the return of the slices to physiological conditions. To evaluate the effect of sustained epileptiform activity on gene expression in this HEC slice preparation, changes in mRNA levels of the GABAA alpha 1 and alpha 2 and beta CaM Kinase II subunits were measured using in situ hybridization. HEC slices were incubated in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) in the presence or absence of Mg2+ for 3 h, then placed in oxygenated ACSF containing Mg2+ for up to 3 h. Control slices were maintained in Mg2+ containing ACSF for up to 6 h. Recurrent SEDs were observed in 0 Mg pre-treated slices while no epileptiform discharges were seen in control slices. Following induction of SEDs by 0 Mg pre-treatment, a significant decrease in mRNA encoding GABAA alpha 2 was found in the CA1, CA2, CA3 and dentate gyrus (DG) regions of the hippocampus for up to 3 h after treatment. Levels of mRNA for GABAA alpha 1 and beta CaM Kinase II were not affected. The results document a decrease in GABAA alpha 2 gene expression following the induction of SEDs in the HEC slice preparation and suggest that rapid changes in neuronal gene expression may contribute to long lasting excitability changes associated with the induction of epilepsy.

Glutamate receptor activation regulates mRNA at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels.

Previous studies from this laboratory have demonstrated that extracellular calcium entry through the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptors in hippocampal neurons selectively down-regulated ligatin gene expression in a rapid and long-lasting manner. Here we investigated the molecular mechanism that underlies this phenomenon. We demonstrate that glutamate receptor activation transiently increased the transcriptional activity of the ligatin gene and simultaneously shortened the half-life of its message. Using nuclear run-on assays and northern analyses of total RNA from alpha-amanitin-treated cells, we measured the effects of glutamate on the transcriptional activity and mRNA stability of the ligatin gene. The transcriptional activity of ligatin was found to be transiently increased (1.4-fold) 20 min after the addition of glutamate, with a return to basal levels by 60 min. Thus, the glutamate-dependent decrease in ligatin message could not be explained by a decline in its synthesis. Instead, concurrent with transcriptional up-regulation, glutamate shortened the half-life of the ligatin message from 10 h to 58 min, leading to a net decrease (0.7-fold) in its steady-state levels by 60 min. This posttranscriptional destablization of ligatin mRNA was mimicked by the translation inhibitor, cycloheximide, but not by puromycin. This finding indicated that the stability of ligatin mRNA was translation independent and distinguished this posttranscriptional regulatory mechanism from those previously described. Moreover, using in situ hybridization and confocal microscopy, we showed that control of message stability occurred both in the cell body and in the dendritic regions distant from the nucleus.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in hippocampal neurons by glutamate receptor activation.

Previous work from this laboratory has documented that glutamate receptor activation and extracellular calcium entry into hippocampal neurons caused a long-lasting down-regulation of ligatin mRNA and protein. Here, we investigated whether glutamate reduced ligatin mRNA levels by decreasing the transcriptional activity of the gene and/or by regulating post-transcriptional RNA processing steps including mRNA stability. Using nuclear run-on assays, it was demonstrated that transcriptional activity of the ligatin gene was not significantly decreased after glutamate receptor activation. Further, Northern analysis of RNA from neurons maintained in the presence of the transcription inhibitor, alpha-amanitin, showed that glutamate shortened the half life of the ligatin message from 10 h to 58 min. This post-transcriptional destabilization of ligatin mRNA was mimicked by NMDA, dependent on Ca2+, blocked by MK801, and not affected by AMPA and kainic acid, indicating that message stability was governed by changes in intracellular calcium. Moreover, using in situ hybridization and confocal microscopy, we showed that glutamate and NMDA decreased ligatin message within dendritic and somal regions without increasing nuclear levels. These findings demonstrated that glutamate receptor activation altered neuronal gene expression posttranscriptionally by destabilizing mRNA. Our data suggest that post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression may be part of the normal receptor mediated regulatory program of plasticity and provides the first description of a glutamate receptor-modulated, calcium-dependent mechanism which rapidly destabilizes mRNA in neurons.

Early gene changes in myocardial ischemia.

After certain periods of myocardial ischemia and reperfusion, cardiac dysfunction exists in the absence of myonecrosis. In a blood-perfused isolated rat heart model, we have demonstrated early gene changes that are associated with global myocardial "stunning." Early gene changes included elevations in the expression of messenger RNAs for HSP70, c-myc and c-fos. Increased expression of messenger RNAs for protooncogenes is an important observation because of the role of protooncogenes as nuclear transcription factors. From these study findings, it would appear that the stunning state is associated with early gene changes that may signal the induction of a hypertrophic process. Subsequent studies are required to demonstrate the exact events which take place in the course of stunning that directly initiate an alteration in gene expression.

Orotic acid improves left ventricular recovery four days after heterotopic transplantation.

Orotic acid accelerates compensatory myocardial hypertrophy after regional ischemia and improves left ventricular function acutely after global ischemia. In this study, the effect of orotic acid on left ventricular function was investigated 4 days after global ischemia (75 minutes, 21 degrees C) using heterotopically transplanted rabbit hearts (n = 18). Experimental animals received daily 100-mg/kg doses of intraperitoneally administered orotic acid, starting 1 day before transplantation, and showed a threefold increase in the serum level of orotic acid by 4 days. After 1 hour of reperfusion, the developed pressure was equally depressed in both the control and experimental groups; however, 4 days later, the developed pressure in control animals was decreased by 3 +/- 3 mm Hg (versus the developed pressure measured at 1 hour) while the developed pressure in experimental animals was significantly increased by 25 +/- 8 mm Hg. Heterotopically transplanted hearts manifested diminished systolic function (stemming from ischemia and unloading) as well as decreased expression of adult myosin. Because orotic acid has been observed to produce an increase in protein synthesis in other models, we investigated whether this improvement in systolic function resulted from an orotic acid-mediated augmentation (or preservation) or normal adult myosin expression. Both orotic acid-treated and untreated hearts manifested decreased expression of the beta-myosin heavy chain protein and steady-state messenger RNA levels. Because function improved with decreased beta-myosin heavy chain expression, an alternate mechanism underlying orotic acid-mediated improvement in function is implicated. Nevertheless, orotic acid may be a therapeutic agent facilitating long-term recovery from global ischemia.

Myocardial stunning: association with altered gene expression.

Regional and global myocardial ischemia and reperfusion have been demonstrated to induce expression of the stress response protein heat shock 70 (HSP70) and of immediate early genes, c-jun, c-fos, and c-myc. Because of the models that have been utilized, it has not been possible to discriminate whether this response is the consequence of ischemia, reperfusion, or abnormal hemodynamic stress superimposed on stunned myocardium. In a nonworking isolated and blood-perfused rat heart model, we evaluated the mRNAs for c-fos, c-myc, and hsp70. The heart was subjected to varying periods of ischemia and reperfusion. Significant increases in hsp70 and c-fos were observed, which increased with longer periods of ischemia. No significant increase in c-myc was measured. In addition, mRNA encoding the Ca2+/glucose responsive stress protein GRP78 was evaluated. No increase in this early response gene was noted despite the use of a model associated with cellular calcium loading. Based on these observations, we suggest that the induction of hsp70 and c-fos is the consequence of ischemia and reperfusion and not dependent upon an early hypertrophy response such as would be observed in afterload mismatching or on calcium loading. Further investigations are necessary to isolate the effects of ischemia from those of reperfusion.

Kindling produces long-lasting and selective changes in gene expression of hippocampal neurons.

To test the hypothesis that repeated subconvulsive stimulations required to induce kindling can permanently alter gene expression of hippocampal neurons, we used Northern and in situ hybridization analyses to measure steady-state mRNA levels encoding several phenotypic proteins. mRNA encoding a membrane-bound protein, ligatin, was significantly reduced in kindled brains relative to naive and sham control animals. This change in gene expression persisted for over 4 months after kindling, was associated with a decrease in ligatin protein expression, was not produced by single or multiple seizures that did not induce the kindling phenomena, and was blocked by MK801. These results provide direct evidence that kindling can cause persistent changes in the expression of specific genes in hippocampal neurons and suggest that N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-activated changes in gene expression may be a basic molecular mechanism underlying some of the long-lasting plasticity changes seen in kindling or models of long-term memory.

Excitatory amino acid receptor activation produces a selective and long-lasting modulation of gene expression in hippocampal neurons.

Activation of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptors in cultured hippocampal neurons causes down-regulation of the protein ligatin, a receptor for phosphoglycoproteins and a marker protein for membrane-vesicle transport systems. This reduction occurs at both physiologic and excitotoxic levels of glutamate stimulation and is accompanied by a significant decrease in steady state levels of ligatin mRNA. Reduction in ligatin mRNA occurs within 60 min and persists 24 h later. Steady state levels of mRNAs encoding cyclophilin, an ubiquitous cytosolic protein, and neuron specific-enolase (N-SE) are not diminished by glutamate receptor activation, demonstrating that down-regulation of ligatin mRNA was not a result of general catabolism. Further, this reduction in ligatin mRNA occurred without induction of HSP 70. Pharmacological studies using selective antagonists and agonists indicate that this down-regulation of ligatin gene expression is predominantly mediated by the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subclass of EAA receptors and that Ca2+ is required. This is the first report that EAA receptor activation in hippocampal neurons can pretranslationally down-regulate gene expression in a rapid and long-lasting manner under physiologic, as well as cytotoxic conditions. The data support the hypothesis that modulation of neuronal gene expression may represent a molecular mechanism mediating some of the long-lasting functional and pathophysiological effects of EAA on cell function.

Molecular cloning of the cDNA for ligatin.

We describe the first isolation and sequence of a partial cDNA clone encoding ligatin, a trafficking receptor for phosphoglycoproteins. The clone was isolated from a human U937 promonocyte lambda gt11 cDNA library using rabbit antiserum to rat ileal ligatin. RNA blot hybridization revealed that the intact receptor transcript in human cells is 2.4 kilobases (kb). DNA sequencing together with expression of protein fusion products in Escherichia coli demonstrated that the cloned segment begins with a 1.2 kb open reading frame potentially encoding a 7.5 x 10(3) Mr section of the 10 x 10(3) Mr receptor followed by a 3' tail of 948 bases. The 225 bases of coding sequence correspond to the carboxyl region of ligatin and contain a potential acceptor site for asparagine-linked glycosylation. Neither a poly(A) sequence nor polyadenylation signal was found at the 3' end of the clone. In the 3' untranslated region there is a paired consensus sequence (TGAGnnnTTTTTCA) that is analogous to a conserved 12 base-pair sequence present in clusters in several growth-controlled mRNAs, including those for c-fos and beta-actin. The identity of this clone as ligatin was confirmed immunologically using antisera to an encoded fusion protein and three independent regions of its derived sequence. In addition, one of these antibodies produced a punctate immunofluorescence pattern within the cytosol of U937 cells in a similar fashion to anti-ligatin serum.

A novel N-acetylglucosaminidase from neonatal rat enterocytes.

The luminal surface of ileal enterocytes in fetal and neonatal mammals is covered by beta-hexosaminidase, which is attached to a fibrillar array. In this study, we have isolated this enzyme and subjected it to kinetic and structural analyses. The enzyme is identified as N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase (NA beta G) on the basis of substrate specificity and susceptibility to inhibition by N-acetylgalactosamine. Its catalytic properties and thermal stability are characteristics of the acidic, thermally labile human isoenzyme, but it differs from the human glycosidase in size. The neonatal NA beta G is a species of 225,000 relative mass (Mr), composed of two subunits of 125,000 and 115,000 Mr. Both its cellular location and differences in biophysical properties from the adult rat lysosomal forms and human glycosidases suggest that the neonatal rat NA beta G is a novel isoenzyme.

Ligatin: a peripheral membrane protein with covalently bound palmitic acid.

The ligatin monomer is a polypeptide of Mr = 10,000 which is soluble in acidified chloroform:methanol, a characteristic similar to that of Folch-Lee proteolipid. The hydrophobicity of ligatin is also reflected by its ability to interpolate into the phosphatidylcholine bilayer as shown by a concentration-dependent change in membrane conductance. However, unlike other proteolipids the amino acid composition of ligatin is not enriched in hydrophobic amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, valine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan). Instead, the hydrophobic character of ligatin could be explained, at least in part, by the covalent association of fatty acids, 1.4-1.7 mol of palmitate/10,000 g of protein, as revealed by gas chromatography mass spectrographic analyses. The post-translational addition of fatty acid may therefore be the means by which ligatin acquires an affinity for membranes.

Transepithelial transport of maternal antibody: purification of IgG receptor from newborn rat intestine.

In newborn rats, passive immunity is acquired from the mother by selective transport across the gut wall of immunoglobulin (IgG) present in colostrum and milk. Ultrastructural and physiologic studies of this mechanism have shown that the binding and uptake of IgG exhibits saturation kinetics and stereochemical specificity consistent with it being a receptor-mediated process. We report here the isolation and purification of a protein from membranes of neonatal rat enterocytes that binds immunoglobulins. The basis of our purification procedure is the extraction of this IgG-binding protein from isolated membranes in the absence of detergents and its biospecific elution from an IgG affinity column. This purified protein consists of two similar polypeptides of 52,000 and 48,000 Mr. The interaction of this purified protein with immunoglobulin is isotype dependent, with specificity for IgG and its Fc fragment, and pH dependent, with optimal binding at the intraluminal pH of 6.0. This intestinal IgG-binding protein is found in enterocytes of the proximal intestine during the early postnatal period, but is absent after weaning when transport of IgG ceases. Our results suggest that this purified intestinal IgG-binding protein functions in the transepithelial transport of IgG in rat neonates.