Is gratitude a moral affect?

Gratitude is conceptualized as a moral affect that is analogous to other moral emotions such as empathy and guilt. Gratitude has 3 functions that can be conceptualized as morally relevant: (a) a moral barometer function (i.e., it is a response to the perception that one has been the beneficiary of another person's moral actions); (b) a moral motive function (i.e., it motivates the grateful person to behave prosocially toward the benefactor and other people); and (c) a moral reinforcer function (i.e., when expressed, it encourages benefactors to behave morally in the future). The personality and social factors that are associated with gratitude are also consistent with a conceptualization of gratitude as an affect that is relevant to people's cognitions and behaviors in the moral domain.

Religion and coping with serious medical illness.

OBJECTIVE: To review and discuss some of the research published in the last several decades that has addressed the role that religion plays in helping patients cope with serious medical illness. DATA SOURCES: Although this is not a systematic review of the literature, it provides a sampling of the studies that have examined the relationship between religious involvement, coping with illness, and health outcomes. This sampling of studies reflects the findings of a much larger systematic review of research (MEDLINE, Current Contents, Psychlit, Soclit, HealthStar, Cancerlit, CINAHL, and others) during the past century that was recently completed by the authors. DATA EXTRACTION: Epidemiologic studies published in the English-language literature were reviewed and discussed. DATA SYNTHESIS: A number of well-designed cross-sectional and prospective studies have examined the relationship between religious beliefs and activities and adaptation to physical illness in patients with general medical conditions, neurologic disorders, heart disease, renal failure, AIDS, and a host of other physical disorders. This review demonstrates the widespread use of religion in coping with medical illness and provides circumstantial evidence for the possible benefits of this lifestyle factor. CONCLUSIONS: When people become physically ill, many rely heavily on religious beliefs and practices to relieve stress, retain a sense of control, and maintain hope and their sense of meaning and purpose in life. Religious involvement appears to enable the sick, particularly those with serious and disabling medical illness, to cope better and experience psychological growth from their negative health experiences, rather than be defeated or overcome by them.

Religious involvement and mortality: a meta-analytic review.

A meta-analysis of data from 42 independent samples examining the association of a measure of religious involvement and all-cause mortality is reported. Religious involvement was significantly associated with lower mortality (odds ratio = 1.29; 95% confidence interval: 1.20-1.39), indicating that people high in religious involvement were more likely to be alive at follow-up than people lower in religious involvement. Although the strength of the religious involvement-mortality association varied as a function of several moderator variables, the association of religious involvement and mortality was robust and on the order of magnitude that has come to be expected for psychosocial factors. Conclusions did not appear to be due to publication bias.

Physicians and patient spirituality: professional boundaries, competency, and ethics.

Clinical studies are beginning to clarify how spirituality and religion can contribute to the coping strategies of many patients with severe, chronic, and terminal conditions. The ethical aspects of physician attention to the spiritual and religious dimensions of patients' experiences of illness require review and discussion. Should the physician discuss spiritual issues with his or her patients? What are the boundaries between the physician and patient regarding these issues? What are the professional boundaries between the physician and the chaplain? This article examines the physician-patient relationship and medical ethics at a time when researchers are beginning to appreciate the spiritual aspects of coping with illness.

Is God good for your health? The role of spirituality in medical care.

Many studies have found that religious belief and practice have a positive effect on physical and mental health, although the topic needs more research. As religious beliefs may affect both health and health-promoting behavior, physicians should try to understand their patients' beliefs.

Research on religious variables in five major adolescent research journals: 1992 to 1996.

A review of quantitative research studies published between 1992 and 1996 in five major adolescent journals revealed that 11.8% (109 of 922) included a measure of religion. This percentage (11.8%) is 3 to 10 times higher than that found in previous reviews of empirical research in psychological and psychiatric journals, suggesting that adolescent research journals are more sensitive to the role of religious factors on mental health than research in related disciplines. The results are discussed in the context and philosophy of the adolescent research and in comparison with related disciplines.

Religion and depression: a review of the literature.

We reviewed data from approximately 80 published and unpublished studies that examined the association of religious affiliation or involvement with depressive symptoms or depressive disorder. In these studies, religion was measured as religious affiliation; general religious involvement; organizational religious involvement; prayer or private religious involvement; religious salience and motivation; or religious beliefs. People from some religious affiliations appear to have an elevated risk for depressive symptoms and depressive disorder, and people with no religious affiliation are at an elevated risk in comparison with people who are religiously affiliated. People with high levels of general religious involvement, organizational religious involvement, religious salience, and intrinsic religious motivation are at reduced risk for depressive symptoms and depressive disorders. Private religious activity and particular religious beliefs appear to bear no reliable relationship with depression. People with high levels of extrinsic religious motivation are at increased risk for depressive symptoms. Although these associations tend to be consistent, they are modest and are substantially reduced in multivariate research. Longitudinal research is sparse, but suggests that some forms of religious involvement might exert a protective effect against the incidence and persistence of depressive symptoms or disorders. The existing research is sufficient to encourage further investigation of the associations of religion with depressive symptoms and disorder. Religion should be measured with higher methodological standards than those that have been accepted in survey research to date.

Does religious attendance prolong survival? A six-year follow-up study of 3,968 older adults.

METHODS: A probability sample of 3,968 community-dwelling adults aged 64-101 years residing in the Piedmont of North Carolina was surveyed in 1986 as part of the Established Populations for the Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly (EPESE) program of the National Institutes of Health. Attendance at religious services and a wide variety of sociodemographic and health variables were assessed at baseline. Vital status of members was then determined prospectively over the next 6 years (1986 1992). Time (days) to death or censoring in days was analyzed using a Cox proportional hazards regression model. RESULTS: During a median 6.3-year follow-up period, 1,777 subjects (29.7%) died. Of the subjects who attended religious services once a week or more in 1986 (frequent attenders), 22.9% died compared to 37.4% of those attending services less than once a week (infrequent attenders). The relative hazard (RH) of dying for frequent attenders was 46% less than for infrequent attenders (RH: 0.54, 95% CI 0.48-.0.61), an effect that was strongest in women (RH 0.51, CI 0.434).59) but also present in men (RH 0.63, 95% CI 0.52-0.75). When demographics, health conditions, social connections, and health practices were controlled, this effect remained significant for the entire sample (RH 0.72, 95% CI 0.64-.81), and for both women (RH 0.65, 95% CI 0.554-.76, p<.0001) and men (RH 0.83, 95% CI 0.69-1.00, p=.05). CONCLUSIONS: Older adults, particularly women, who attend religious services at least once a week appear to have a survival advantage over those attending services less frequently.

Depressive symptoms and nine-year survival of 1,001 male veterans hospitalized with medical illness.

Authors examined effects of depressive symptoms on after-discharge survival of hospitalized medically ill male veterans. Psychosocial and physical health evaluations were performed on a consecutive sample of 1,001 patients ages 20-39 (16%) and 65-102 years (84%). Subjects or surviving family members were later contacted by telephone, and Cox proportional-hazards regression modeled the effects of depressive symptoms on time-to-death, controlling for demographics and social, psychiatric, and physical health. Follow-up was obtained on all 1,001 patients (average observation time, 9 years), during which 667 patients died (67%). Patients with depressive symptoms were significantly less likely to survive. For every 1-point increase on the 12-item Brief Carroll Depression Rating Scale (BCDRS), the hazard of dying increased by 10% (P<0. 0001). Age did not significantly affect the association between depressive symptoms and mortality. Depressive symptoms during acute hospitalization are a predictor of shortened survival.

Spiritually and religiously oriented health interventions.

Controlled intervention studies offer considerable promise to better understand relationships and possible mechanisms between spiritual and religious factors and health. Studies examining spiritually augmented cognitive-behavioral therapies, forgiveness interventions, different meditation approaches, 12-step fellowships, and prayer have provided some evidence, albeit modest, of efficacy in improving health under specific conditions. Researchers need to describe spiritual and religious factors more clearly and precisely, as well as demonstrate that such factors independently influence treatment efficacy. Inclusion of potential moderating and mediating variables (e.g. extent of religious commitment, intrinsic religiousness, specific religious coping strategy) in intervention designs could help explain relationships and outcomes. Using a variety of research designs (e.g. randomized clinical trials, single-subject experimental designs) and assessment methods (e.g. daily self-monitoring, ambulatory physiological measures, in-depth structured interviews) would avoid current limitations of short-term studies using only questionnaires.

Research on religion and serious mental illness.

According to this review, religion plays a largely positive role in mental health; future research on severe mental disorders should include religious factors more directly.

The relationship between religious activities and cigarette smoking in older adults.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between religious activities and cigarette smoking in community-dwelling older adults. METHODS: Cigarette smoking and religious activities were assessed in a probability sample of 3968 persons age 65 years or older participating in the Duke Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly (EPESE) survey. Participants were asked if they currently smoked, if they ever smoked, and how many cigarettes per day they smoked. Attendance at religious services, participation in private religious activities (prayer or Bible study), and use of religious media (religious TV or radio) were also assessed. Data were available for Waves I-III of the survey (1986, 1989, and 1992). Analyses were controlled for age, race, sex, education, alcohol use, physical health, and in the longitudinal analyses, smoking status at prior waves. RESULTS: Cross-sectional analyses revealed that participants who frequently attended religious services were significantly less likely to smoke cigarettes at all three waves. Likewise, elders frequently involved in private religious activity were less likely to smoke (Waves II and III). Total number of pack-years smoked was also inversely related to both attendance at religious services and private religious activities. Watching religious TV or listening to religious radio, on the other hand, was not related to smoking at Waves I and II nor to total pack-years smoked, but was positively related to current smoking at Wave III. Among those who smoked, number of cigarettes smoked was inversely related to frequency of attendance at religious services (Wave I), private religious activities (Wave III), and religious TV/radio (Waves II and III). Retrospective and prospective analyses revealed that religiously active persons were less likely to ever start smoking, not more likely to quit smoking. CONCLUSIONS: Religiously active persons are less likely to smoke cigarettes, and if they do smoke, smoke fewer cigarettes. Given the association between smoking and disease, and the widespread prevalence of both smoking and religious activity, this finding has implications for public health.

Developing curricula in spirituality and medicine.

In recent years patients and some members of the medical community have expressed the concern that doctors have forgotten about compassion and too often ignore their patients' spiritual concerns. Patients can and should expect their physicians to respect their beliefs and be able to talk with them about spiritual concerns in a respectful and caring manner. Medical schools must teach their students how to meet these expectations, and health care systems need to provide practice environments that foster compassionate caregiving. Medical educators are recognizing the need to bring the art of compassionate caregiving back into the medical school curriculum. This paper focuses on one approach to achieving this goal, the study of spirituality and medicine. The authors discuss the relationship of spirituality and healing, and describe studies that have shown patients' desire to have spiritual issues addressed by their physicians and the potential health benefits of spiritual beliefs. Finally, they describe common elements of the spirituality courses offered by approximately 50 U.S. medical schools, including 19 schools that have been awarded grants from the National Institute for Healthcare Research for the development of curricula in spirituality and medicine.

Use of hospital services, religious attendance, and religious affiliation.

BACKGROUND: We examined the relationship between religious attendance, religious affiliation, and use of acute hospital services by older medical patients. METHODS: Religious affiliation (n = 542) and church attendance (n = 455) were examined in a consecutive sample of medical patients aged 60 or older admitted to Duke University Medical Center. Information on use of acute hospital services during the year before admission and length of the current hospital stay was collected. Frequency of church attendance and religious affiliation were examined as predictors of hospital service use, controlling for age, sex, race, education, social support, depressive symptoms, physical functioning, and severity of medical illness as covariates using logistic regression. RESULTS: Patients who attended church weekly or more often were significantly less likely in the previous year to have been admitted to the hospital, had fewer hospital admissions, and spent fewer days in the hospital than those attending less often; these associations retained their significance after controlling for covariates. Patients unaffiliated with a religious community, while not using more acute hospital services in the year before admission, had significantly longer index hospital stays than those affiliated. Unaffiliated patients spent an average of 25 days in the hospital, compared with 11 days for affiliated patients; this association strengthened when physical health and other covariates were controlled. CONCLUSIONS: Participation in and affiliation with a religious community is associated with lower use of hospital services by medically ill older adults, a population of high users of health care services. Possible reasons for this association and its implications are discussed.

The relationship between religious activities and blood pressure in older adults.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between religious activities and blood pressure in community-dwelling older adults. METHOD: Blood pressure and religious activities were assessed in a probability sample of 3,963 persons age sixty-five years or older participating in the Duke EPESE survey. Participants were asked if their doctor had ever informed them that they had high blood pressure and if they were currently taking medication for high blood pressure. After the interview, systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured following a standardized protocol. Data were available for three waves of the survey (1986, 1989-90, and 1993-94). Analyses were stratified by age (65-74 vs. over 75) and by race (Whites vs. Blacks) and were controlled for age, race, gender, education, physical functioning, body mass index, and, in longitudinal analyses, blood pressure from the previous wave. RESULTS: Cross-sectional analyses revealed small (1-4 mm Hg) but consistent differences in measured systolic and diastolic blood pressures between frequent (once/wk) and infrequent (< once/wk) religious service attenders. Lower blood pressures were also observed among those who frequently prayed or studied the Bible (daily or more often). Blood pressure differences were particularly notable in Black and younger elderly, in whom religious activity at one wave predicted blood pressures three years later. Among participants who both attended religious services and prayed or studied the Bible frequently, the likelihood of having a diastolic blood pressure of 90 mm Hg or higher was 40 percent lower than found in participants who attended religious services infrequently and prayed or studied the Bible infrequently (OR 0.60, 95% CI, 0.48-0.75, p < .0001). Among participants told they had high blood pressure, religiously active persons were more likely to be taking their blood pressure medication; this could not, however, explain the differences in blood pressure observed. While most religious activity was associated with lower blood pressure, those who frequently watched religious TV or listened to religious radio actually had higher blood pressures. CONCLUSIONS: Religiously active older adults tend to have lower blood pressures than those who are less active. This applies to attendance at religious services and private religious activities, but not to religious media. Physiological mechanisms are discussed.

An analysis of research on religious and spiritual variables in three major mental health nursing journals, 1991-1995.

A review of quantitative research studies published between 1991 and 1995 in 3 major mental health nursing journals revealed that approximately 10% (31 of 311) included a measure of religion or spirituality. This percentage (10%) is 3 to 8 times higher than that found in previous reviews of empirical research in psychological and psychiatric journals, suggesting that mental health nursing research is more sensitive to the role of religious-spiritual factors on mental health than research in related disciplines. The results are discussed in the context of the history and philosophy of nursing and in comparison to related disciplines. Methodological aspects of the research, especially the importance of multiple measures, are discussed, as are other salient findings.