AXIN2 germline testing in a French cohort validates pathogenic variants as a rare cause of predisposition to colorectal polyposis and cancer.

Only a few patients with germline AXIN2 variants and colorectal adenomatous polyposis or cancer have been described, raising questions about the actual contribution of this gene to colorectal cancer (CRC) susceptibility. To assess the clinical relevance for AXIN2 testing in patients suspected of genetic predisposition to CRC, we collected clinical and molecular data from the French Oncogenetics laboratories analyzing AXIN2 in this context. Between 2004 and June 2020, 10 different pathogenic/likely pathogenic AXIN2 variants were identified in 11 unrelated individuals. Eight variants were from a consecutive series of 3322 patients, which represents a frequency of 0.24%. However, loss-of-function AXIN2 variants were strongly associated with genetic predisposition to CRC as compared with controls (odds ratio: 11.89, 95% confidence interval: 5.103-28.93). Most of the variants were predicted to produce an AXIN2 protein devoid of the SMAD3-binding and DIX domains, but preserving the ß-catenin-binding domain. Ninety-one percent of the AXIN2 variant carriers who underwent colonoscopy had adenomatous polyposis. Forty percent of the variant carriers developed colorectal or/and other digestive cancer. Multiple tooth agenesis was present in at least 60% of them. Our report provides further evidence for a role of AXIN2 in CRC susceptibility, arguing for AXIN2 testing in patients with colorectal adenomatous polyposis or cancer.

Genetic predisposition to neural crest-derived tumors: revisiting the role of KIF1B.

OBJECTIVE: We previously described a family in which predisposition to pheochromocytoma (PCC) segregates with a germline heterozygous KIF1B nucleotide variant (c.4442G>A, p.Ser1481Asn) in three generations. During the clinical follow-up, one proband's brother, negative for the KIF1B nucleotide variant, developed a bilateral PCC at 31 years. This prompted us to reconsider the genetic analysis. DESIGN AND METHODS: Germline DNA was analyzed by next-generation sequencing (NGS) using a multi-gene panel plus MLPA or by whole exome sequencing (WES). Tumor-derived DNA was analyzed by SnapShot, Sanger sequencing or NGS to identify loss-of-heterozygosity (LOH) or additional somatic mutations. RESULTS: A germline heterozygous variant of unknown significance in MAX (c.145T>C, p.Ser49Pro) was identified in the proband's brother. Loss of the wild-type MAX allele occurred in his PCCs thus demonstrating that this variant was responsible for the bilateral PCC in this patient. The proband and her affected grandfather also carried the MAX variant but no second hit could be found at the somatic level. No other pathogenic mutations were detected in 36 genes predisposing to familial PCC/PGL or familial cancers by WES of the proband germline. Germline variants detected in other genes, TFAP2E and TMEM214, may contribute to the multiple tumors of the proband. CONCLUSION: In this family, the heritability of PCC is linked to the MAX germline variant and not to the KIF1B germline variant which, however, may have contributed to the occurrence of neuroblastoma (NB) in the proband.

Should the GCM2 gene be tested when screening for familial primary hyperparathyroidism?

OBJECTIVE: Primary hyperparathyroism (PHPT) is a disease with either sporadic or inherited presentation. Germline mutations responsible for this disease can be found in different genes, the most frequently involved being MEN1, CDC73 = HRPT2 and CASR. During the last few years, new genes have been described as responsible for the development of PHPT such as GCM2. These genes are not systematically included in PHPT genetic screening yet. The aim of this work was to assess the importance of GCM2 genetic analysis in PHPT to determine if this gene should be included in gene panel investigated for this disease. DESIGN AND METHODS: The TENGEN network (French Oncogenetic Network of Neuroendocrine Tumors) collected and interpreted allelic variants according to the clinical characteristics of the GCM2-positive patients identified through genetic testing performed in French laboratories (713 patients with PHPT). RESULTS: From 713 patients with PHPT included in this study, 85 (6.6%) carried at least one GCM2 variant. A total of 12 variants classified as uncertain significance or likely pathogenic were reported in 47 patients. Their mean age at PHPT diagnosis was 49 years. Additionally, the investigation of a large family showed that GCM2 variants could be associated with low penetrance. CONCLUSION: We provide a description and interpretation for GCM2 variants identified in a French population. We suggest that this gene should be included in genetic screening of patients with PHPT and propose the follow-up of asymptomatic patients carrying such variants for calcemia.

MSH2 c.1022T>C, p.Leu341Pro is a founder pathogenic variation and a major cause of Lynch syndrome in the North of France.

Interpretation of missense variants remains a major challenge for genetic diagnosis, even in well-known genes such as the DNA-mismatch repair (MMR) genes involved in Lynch syndrome. We report the characterization of a variant in MSH2: c.1022T>C, which was identified in 20 apparently unrelated families living in the North of France. A total of 150 patients from 20 families were included in this study. Family segregation studies, tumor analyses and functional analyses at both the RNA and protein levels were performed. Founder effect was evaluated by haplotype analysis.We show that MSH2 c.1022T>C is a missense variant (p.Leu341Pro) that affects protein stability. This variant is frequent in the North of France (7.7% of pathogenic variations identified in MMR genes), and is located on an ancestral haplotype. It is associated with a high risk of a broad tumor spectrum including brain and cutaneous cancers. The MSH2 c.1022T>C variant is a pathogenic founder variation associated with a high risk of cancer. These findings have important implications for genetic counseling and management of variant carriers.

Diversity of genetic events associated with MLH1 promoter methylation in Lynch syndrome families with heritable constitutional epimutation.

PURPOSE: Constitutional epimutations are an alternative to genetic mutations in the etiology of genetic diseases. Some of these epimutations, termed secondary, correspond to the epigenetic effects of cis-acting genetic defects transmitted to the offspring following a Mendelian inheritance pattern. In Lynch syndrome, a few families with such apparently heritable MLH1 epimutations have been reported so far. METHODS: We designed a long-range polymerase chain reaction next-generation sequencing strategy to screen MLH1 entire gene and applied it to 4 French families with heritable epimutations and 10 additional patients with no proven transmission of their epimutations. RESULTS: This strategy successfully detected the insertion of an Alu element in MLH1 coding sequence in one family. Two previously unreported MLH1 variants were also identified in other epimutation carriers: a nucleotide substitution within intron 1 and a single-nucleotide deletion in the 5'-UTR. Detection of a partial MLH1 duplication in another family required multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification technology. We demonstrated the segregation of these variants with MLH1 methylation and studied the functional consequences of these defects on transcription. CONCLUSION: This is the largest cohort of patients with MLH1 secondary epimutations associated with a broad spectrum of genetic defects. This study provides further insight into the complexity of molecular mechanisms leading to secondary epimutations.

Identification and characterization of a novel MLH1 genomic rearrangement as the cause of HNPCC in a Tunisian family: evidence for a homologous Alu-mediated recombination.

High rates of early colorectal cancers are observed in Tunisia suggesting high genetic susceptibility. Nevertheless, up to now no molecular studies have been performed. Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) is the most frequent cause of inherited colorectal cancer. It is caused by constitutional mutations in the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) genes. Here, we investigated a Tunisian family highly suspected of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC). Six patients were diagnosed with a colorectal or an endometrial cancer at an early age, including one young female who developed a colorectal cancer at 22 years and we tested for germline mutations in MMR genes. MMR genes were tested for rearrangements by MLPA (MLH1, MSH2) and the presence of point mutations by sequencing (MLH1, MSH2, MSH6). Moreover, tumors were analyzed for microsatellite instability and expression of MMR proteins, as well as for somatic rearrangements in MLH1 and MSH2 by MLPA. MMR gene analysis by MLPA revealed the presence of a large deletion in MLH1 removing exon 6. Sequence analysis of the breakpoint region showed that this rearrangement resulted from a homologous unequal recombination mediated by a repetitive Alu sequence. Moreover, tumors harbored biallelic deletion of MLH1 exon 6 and loss of heterozygosity at MLH1 intragenic markers, suggesting duplication of the rearranged allele in the tumor. This germline MLH1 rearrangement was associated to a severe phenotype in this family. This is the first report of a molecular analysis in a Tunisian family with HNPCC.

Partial duplications of the MSH2 and MLH1 genes in hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer.

Numerous reports have highlighted the contribution of MSH2 and MLH1 genomic deletions to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) or Lynch's syndrome, but genomic duplications of these genes have been rarely reported. Using quantitative multiplex PCR of short fluorescent fragments (QMPSF), 962 and 611 index cases were, respectively, screened for MSH2 and MLH1 genomic rearrangements. This allowed us to detect, in 11 families, seven MSH2 duplications affecting exons 1-2-3, exons 4-5-6, exon 7, exons 7-8, exons 9-10, exon 11, and exon 15, and three MLH1 duplications affecting exons 2-3, exon 4 and exons 6-7-8. All duplications were confirmed by an independent method. The contribution of genomic duplications of MSH2 and MLH1 to HNPCC can therefore be estimated approximately to 1% of the HNPCC cases. Although this frequency is much lower than that of genomic deletions, the presence of MSH2 or MLH1 genomic duplications should be considered in HNPCC families without detectable point mutations.

Human CYP4F12 genetic polymorphism: identification and functional characterization of seven variant allozymes.

The human cytochrome CYP4F12 has been shown to be metabolically active toward inflammatory mediators and exogenous compounds such as antihistaminic drugs. We recently identified a genetic polymorphism within the promoter region, associated with a decreased level of enzyme expression. In the present study, we report the further identification of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the coding sequence of the CYP4F12 gene. A polymerase chain reaction-single strand conformational polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) analysis of DNA samples from 53 unrelated French Caucasians, allowed the identification of ten mutations, comprising seven missense mutations, 31C>T (Leu11Phe), 38C>T (Pro13Leu), 47C>T (Met16Thr), 4759G>A (Asp76Asn), 4801G>A (Val90Leu), 8896C>T (Arg188Cys) and 23545G>A (Gly522Ser). Their functional impact toward ebastine hydroxylation was evaluated using heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells of site-directed mutated cDNA variants. Five out seven variants did not exhibit any significant difference in CYP4F12 catalytic activity, whereas two variants, Val90Ile and Arg188Cys, displayed significant changes in their Michaelis-Menten (Km, Vm) parameters. These data on CYP4F12 genetic polymorphism provide tools for further studies of association with pathological processes involving an inflammatory component and with variations in anti-histaminic drug response.

Functional characterization of genetic polymorphisms identified in the human cytochrome P450 4F12 (CYP4F12) promoter region.

The human cytochrome CYP4F12 has been shown to be active toward inflammatory mediators and exogenous compounds such as antihistaminic drugs. In the present study, we report the first investigation of polymorphisms in the human CYP4F12 gene. A screening for sequence variations in the 5'-flanking region was performed by a Polymerase Chain Reaction-Single Strand Conformational Polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) strategy, using DNA samples from 53 unrelated French individuals of Caucasian origin. Several polymorphisms were identified, comprising a large deletion located in intron 1 (CYP4F12*v1), two isolated substitutions -402G>A (CYP4F12*v3) and -188 T>C (CYP4F12*v4) and nine combined mutations, -474T>C, -279A>C, -224A>G, -173G>A, -145C>G, -140T>C, -126T>C, -56T>C, and -21T>G (CYP4F12*v2). Considering the nature and location of the polymorphisms characterizing the CYP4F12*v1 and *v2, the functional relevance of those two allelic variants was further examined by transfecting different cell lines with constructs of the related region of the CYP4F12/luciferase reporter gene. Both alleles lead to a significant decrease of CYP4F12 gene expression in HepG2 cell line and, therefore, are likely to determine interindividual differences in CYP4F12 gene expression.