[Endomembrane system of fungi: traditional and modern conceptions].

The review is devoted to the endomembrane system in Fungi, which is mostly presented in cell by membrane organelles, taking part in exo- and endocytosis. Main tenets of the modern model of exo- and endocytosis are covered by the example of the apical cells of filamentous fungi. Particular attention is given to studies of endomembrane system, which were carried out by electron microscopy in the last century--the era in science preceding the prevalence of methods of fluorescence microscopy, immune and molecular genetic tagging. Endomembrane organelles, which are described in classical studies, but have not been identified or differentiated from other organelles modern specialists are under consideration. Among these organelles are lomasomes, plasmalemmasomes, membranosomes and myelin-like bodies. Possible reasons for the "loss" of given structures in today's science and its place in modern proposed model of endomembrane system are discussed. In addition, some specific questions are mentioned, namely: the presence of mushroom mycelium endobionts, morphologically similar to endomembrane organelles, and the increase of number of endomembrane structures in bracket fungi, limited in nitrogen nutrition.

[Longevity control in fungi and other organisms. The conception of scales].

The review deals mainly with gerontological processes that occur on the cellular-colonial level of organization in fungi and cellular-tissular level in other organisms. Aging and anti-aging mechanisms operating on these levels of organization can be considered as common ones for all living things. Fungi, as an object with tissular-like organization of thallus, afford a broad spectrum of possibilities as to solving the tasks of general gerontological import. Three basic (chronological, replicative, and cell-suicidal) and several auxiliary mechanisms of aging are singled out, the classification is given of stochastic aging factors accumulating in cells. It is shown that in complex multi-cellular organisms, aging and anti-aging mechanisms operate on the level of interactions between tissues, though in the base of their actions lie the aforesaid conservative basic mechanisms. Preliminary generalized conception of aging--the conception of scales--is put forward that is founded on the model of balanced and non-balanced counteractions between stressful impacts and various mechanisms of aging and anti-aging with different extent of genetic preprogramming. The importance is reaffirmed of mycological gerontology contribution to broadening of inferences on aging nature.

[Morphogenesis and ultrastructure of basidiomycetes Agaricus and Pleurotus mitochondria].

Mitochondrial morphogenesis in 31 strains of 9 species of Agaricus--A. arvensis Schaeff., A. bisporus (Lange) Imbach, A. bitorquis (Quel.) Sacc., A. campestris L., A. excellens (F. H. Moller) F. H. Moller, A. macrocarpus (F. H. Möller) F. H. Möller, A. silvaticus Schaeff., A. silvicola (Vittad.) Peck, A. xanthodermus Genev--and 2 strains of Pleurotus--P. ostreatus (Jacg.) P. Kumm., P. pulmonarius (Fr.) Quel.--has many common features in mitochondria distribution under favorable growth conditions (type 1) and in reconstruction of chondriom (fission or fragmentation) under unfavorable growth conditions and aging (type 2). The first type of mitochondria distribution was observed in heterokaryotic mycelium of some Agaricus strains and Pleurotus grown in agar medium during 7-14 days, and also in submerged mycelium of some Agaricus strains and Pleurotus. The second type of mitochondria distribution was observed in homokaryotic Agaricus strains under condition of starvation, in aging mycelium (28 days of growth), and in submerged mycelium of most of Agaricus strains. The first type of chondriom consists of small granular mitochondria in the apical cells and long snake-like network in subapical cells, and restores almost completely the mitochondrial network in the aging mycelium cells. The second type of chondriom consists of small granular mitochondria in all cells of mycelium. The surface of chondriom type 2 mitochondrial membrane was usually closely associated with ribosomes and changed crists. Such mycelium cells in A. bisporus strain Bs94 were TUNEL positive. So, the types of mitochondria morphogenesis in the Agaricus and Pleurotus mycelium cells are similar at different time and growth conditions and depend on complex of physiological and biochemical process in the mycelium cells.

[Abnormal meiosis in bisporic mutants of white button mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach].

A formerly developed method of obtaining spread preparations of mushroom basidial nuclei was applied to study of meiotic prophase I in bisporic white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) strains. Meiotic recombination and assemblage of axial structures (axial elements and synaptonemal complexes) of chromosomes in meiotic prophase I are interrelated. It is known that the frequency of meiotic recombination is reduced in the bisporic A. bisporus variety. We showed that formation of axial structures of meiotic chromosomes in bisporic strains of this mushroom was disrupted. The phenotypes of disruptions in spread prophase nuclei are diverse. In leptotene and early zygotene, many nuclei contain abnormal, often short, and, as a rule, few chromosomal axial elements. The abnormalities in the formation of synaptonemal complexes at the zygotene-diplotene stage are of the same kind and even more pronounced. We discovered an important feature of meiosis in A. bisporus associated with fruit-body morphogenesis. Meiosis starting in basidia (meiocytes) of young closed fruit bodies is accompanied by disruption of chromatin condensation in prophase I and, probably, is arrested. After indusium breakage, the course of meiosis normalizes. Preparations with clearly observable chromosomal axial structures can be obtained only at this stage of fruit-body development.

[A method for preparation of synaptonemal complexes of meiotic chromosomes from basidial protoplasts of the common mushroom Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach]. / Metod polucheniia preparatov sinaptonemnykh kompleksov meioticheskikh khromosom iz bazidial'nykh protoplastov shampin'ona Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach.

For the first time, preparations of synaptonemal complexes (SCs) were made from meiotic chromosomes of white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) basidia. It is the first experience of obtaining SC preparations of filamentous fungi from isolated meiosporangium protoplasts. Previously, only yeast SC preparations were obtained following this approach. The method includes four major stages: isolation of basidium protoplasts by treatment of basidia with lytic enzymes, spreading of protoplast nuclei on a filmy support by osmotic shock, staining the preparations with silver nitrate, and examination under light and electron microscopes. The structures of spread premeiotic nuclei, axial elements of chromosomes, SCs, chromatin, and nucleoli were studied at the leptotene-diplotene stage of meiotic prophase I.