Structure-activity relationships for triphenylethylene antiestrogens on hepatic phase-I and phase-II enzyme expression.

To better understand the mechanism(s) by which tamoxifen induces rat hepatic CYPIIB2 and suppresses GSTA1, structure-activity studies were performed. Compounds employed in these studies included: tamoxifen, fixed-ring tamoxifen, ethylated fixed-ring tamoxifen, pyrrolidino-tamoxifen, 4-iodotamoxifen, idoxifene, and toremifene. With respect to GSTA1 suppression, tamoxifen, fixed-ring tamoxifen, 4-iodotamoxifen, idoxifene, and toremifene were all potent suppressors of GSTA1, while ethylated fixed-ring tamoxifen and pyrrolidino-tamoxifen were completely without activity. The results suggest that the aminoethoxy side chain plays a crucial role in GSTA1 suppression, and that 4-iodination may potentiate this activity. With respect to induction of CYPIIB2, tamoxifen, fixed-ring tamoxifen, and ethylated fixed-ring tamoxifen were inducers of this enzyme, while toremifene and 4-iodotamoxifen were inactive, suggesting that the aminoethoxy side chain is not a structural determinant of CYPIIB2 induction. Because ethylated fixed-ring tamoxifen, toremifene, and 4-iodotamoxifen had differential activities in the two assays, we conclude that CYPIIB2 induction and GSTA1 suppression by triphenylethylenes are the result of two separate and distinct mechanistic pathways. Structure-activity relationships for GSTA1 suppression and CYPIIB2 induction were compared with previously published relationships for triphenylethylene: 1) estrogen receptor relative binding affinity; 2) calmodulin antagonism; 3) antiuterotrophic activity; and 4) antagonism of MCF-7 cell growth. No clear correlation was observed between the effects on CYPIIB2 and these other four activities, suggesting no relationship between the mechanisms responsible for these effects. Similarly, no precise correlation was observed between GSTA1 suppression and these other activities, although rough similarities were observed for relative binding affinity and antiuterotrophic activity. This suggests that the mechanisms responsible for CYPIIB2 induction and GSTA1 suppression are not related to the mechanisms of action for these other documented activities, and may represent different mechanistic pathways.

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray studies on Candida cylindracea lipase.

As part of the programme to understand the mechanism and specificity of lipase enzymes used in biotransformation reactions, the lipase from Candida cylindracea has been purified and crystallized. This lipase has been widely used by organic chemists for hydrolysis and esterification reactions. Crystals were obtained using polyethylene glycol 6000 as a precipitant and grew to 0.6 mm in the maximum dimension. The enzyme crystallized in the space group P2(1) with unit-cell dimensions a = 94.3, b = 117.0, and c = 114.2 A with beta = 109.2 degrees. Calculations indicate that there are four molecules in the asymmetric unit. The crystals diffract to at least 2.5 A resolution and the structure has been solved by molecular replacement using the lipase from Geotrichum candidum as a search model.

The synthesis of (R)-(+)-lipoic acid using a monooxygenase-catalysed biotransformation as the key step.

2-(2-Acetoxyethyl)cyclohexanone (4) was converted into the lactone (-)-(5) regio- and enantioselectively using 2-oxo-delta 3-4,5,5-trimethylcyclopentenyl acetyl-CoA monooxygenase, an NADPH-dependent Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase from camphor grown Pseudomonas putida NCIMB 10007. The lactone (-)-(5) was converted into (R)-(+)-lipoic acid in six steps. In contrast cyclopentanone monooxygenase, an NADPH-dependent Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase from cyclopentanol-grown Pseudomonas sp. NCIMB 9872 selectively oxidized the (S)-enantiomer of the ketone (4) giving better access to optically enriched, naturally occurring lipoic acid.

The effect of tamoxifen and two of its non-isomerizable fixed-ring analogs on multistage rat hepatocarcinogenesis.

Long-term treatment of breast cancer patients with tamoxifen has prompted concern over potential toxicity of this drug with chronic administration. Since tamoxifen has estrogenic action in the rat liver and estrogenic agents can increase hepatoma incidence in rats, tamoxifen and two non-isomerizable, fixed-ring analogs (FRT1 and FRT2) were evaluated as promoting agents in a two-stage model of hepatocarcinogenesis in female Fischer F344 rats. The rats were subjected to 70% partial hepatectomy and half of the animals were administered the initiating agent, diethylnitrosamine (DEN; 10 mg/kg body wt), while the other half were not initiated. Groups of initiated and uninitiated animals were allowed to recover for 2 weeks and were then administered tamoxifen or one of the fixed-ring analogs admixed into AIN-76A diet at 25, 100 or 250 mg/kg diet. After 6 months of anti-estrogen administration the rats were sacrificed and uterine weights, blood levels of anti-estrogen, and liver histopathology were assessed. Uterine weights were decreased 2- to 3-fold by each of the agents, consistent with an anti-estrogenic action in the rat. The serum levels in rats administered 250 mg anti-estrogen/kg diet for 6 months were 320+/-20 ng/ml for tamoxifen, 320+/-10 for FRT1 and 350+/-20 for FRT2. The liver levels after a 6 month administration of 250 mg anti-estrogen/kg diet were 13 870+/-860 ng/g for tamoxifen, 13 300 +/-860 for FRT1 and 26 900+/-1900 for FRT2. A dose-dependent increase in serum and liver level of each compound was noted when measured at the 6 month time period. The number and percentage of the liver occupied by altered hepatic foci (AHF) were determined by quantitative stereology. A dose-dependent increase above initiated controls was observed in the initiated, tamoxifen-treated rats. Both fixed-ring analogs also increased the number and size of AHF compared with initiated controls, but were less potent than tamoxifen, suggesting that tamoxifen has an intrinsic promoting action in the liver that is independent of its ability to isomerize to more potent estrogenic compounds. In addition, the fixed-ring analogs have a weaker promoting activity in the rat liver than does tamoxifen. This may be due to pharmacokinetic differences at the lower two doses, but it is independent of achieved serum level at the highest dose and hence may reflect differences in intrinsic activity of these compounds. Thus tamoxifen and the two fixed-ring analogs promote the development of rat hepatocarcinogenesis.

Esters of 3-pyridylacetic acid that combine potent inhibition of 17 alpha-hydroxylase/C17,20-lyase (cytochrome P45017 alpha) with resistance to esterase hydrolysis.

Esters of 3- and 4-pyridylacetic acid have been prepared and tested for inhibitory activity toward the human testicular 17 alpha-hydroxylase/C17,20-lyase and human placental aromatase enzymes. The structural features required for optimal inhibition of the hydroxylase/lyase enzyme were a 3-pyridine ring, methyl substitution alpha to the carbonyl group, and a bulky alkoxycarbonyl substituent. The compounds with the greatest selectivity were isopinocampheyl 2-methyl-2-(3-pyridyl)propanoate, 9, 1-adamantyl 2-methyl-2-(3-pyridyl)propanoate, 12, and 2-methyl-2-adamantyl 2-methyl-2-(3-pyridyl)propanoate, 14, which, while inhibiting the aromatase activity with IC50 values of 30, 35, and 40 microM, respectively, exhibited IC50 values toward hydroxylase/lyase of between 13 and 90 nM. For comparison, ketoconazole gave an IC50 value of 15 microM against aromatase and values of 65 and 26 nM for inhibition of the hydroxylase and lyase activities, respectively. Some of the structural features required for enzyme inhibition also conferred resistance to esterase hydrolysis, in vitro using rat liver microsomes as a source of the esterase activity. Therefore these esters are lead compounds in the development of inhibitors of androgen biosynthesis for the treatment of hormone-dependent prostatic cancer.

Comparison between inhibition of protein kinase C and antagonism of calmodulin by tamoxifen analogues.

A variety of analogues of tamoxifen were tested for inhibition of protein kinase C (PKC) activity in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. These results were compared with the calmodulin antagonism exhibited by the analogues as measured by inhibition of calmodulin-dependent cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. The same structural features that enhanced PKC inhibition also led to an increase in calmodulin antagonism, namely 4-iodination and elongation of the basic side-chain. The most potent analogue has a 4-iodine substituent and eight carbon atoms in its basic side-chain with IC50 values of 38 microM for PKC inhibition and 0.3 microM for calmodulin antagonism, which compares with 92 and 6.8 microM, respectively, for tamoxifen. Some selectivity was achieved with a ring-fused analogue that retained the potency of tamoxifen as a PKC inhibitor, but lacked calmodulin antagonism.

The deuterium isotope effect for the alpha-hydroxylation of tamoxifen by rat liver microsomes accounts for the reduced genotoxicity of [D5-ethyl]tamoxifen.

This study describes the application of on line HPLC-electrospray ionization MS in the structural determination of the metabolites formed following incubation with rat liver microsomes of an equimolar mixture of the anticancer drug tamoxifen and its [D5-ethyl]-analogue. The ratio of ca 3:1 between unlabelled and D4-labelled alpha-hydroxytamoxifen, indicating a large isotope effect for this metabolic process, accounted for the previously observed lower yield of DNA adducts formed in the livers of rats treated with D5-tamoxifen compared with unlabelled drug. The loss of one deuterium atom on metabolism discriminated hydroxyethylated metabolites from others and enabled two further such metabolites to be detected, namely alpha-hydroxytamoxifen N-oxide and alpha-hydroxy-N-desmethyltamoxifen of which the latter is novel. Furthermore, the use of [alpha-D2-ethyl]- and [beta-D3-ethyl] tamoxifens discriminated alpha- from beta-hydroxylated metabolites and proved that the metabolites described here were alpha-hydroxylated. In contrast to the alpha-hydroxylated metabolites, the other metabolites identified, namely tamoxifen N-oxide, N-desmethyltamoxifen, 4-hydroxytamoxifen and their deuterated counterparts were not depleted in the deuterated components. The use of on line HPLC-electrospray ionization MS combined with isotopic labelling is a powerful technique for probing the structures of metabolites, and, applied to tamoxifen, has provided further evidence that alpha-hydroxylation is an important pathway for the conversion of the drug into a DNA-reactive metabolite.

Identification of tamoxifen metabolites in human Hep G2 cell line, human liver homogenate, and patients on long-term therapy for breast cancer.

The metabolism of tamoxifen was examined in human liver homogenate and human Hep G2 cell line preparations by LC/electro spray ionization/MS. Several metabolites were detected in the human liver homogenate extracts, namely N-didesmethyltamoxifen (metabolite I), alpha-hydroxytamoxifen (metabolite II), 4-hydroxytamoxifen (metabolite III), N-desmethyltamoxifen (metabolite IV), and tamoxifen N-oxide (metabolite V). Metabolites II, III, IV, and V were observed in the samples after incubating tamoxifen with the human Hep G2 cell line. When these results were compared with the metabolic profiles in patients, apart from metabolites I-V, alpha-hydroxy-N-desmethyltamoxifen (VI) and 4-hydroxy N-desmethyltamoxifen (VII) were present in all the plasma samples. In addition, in patients who had received tamoxifen treatment daily for > 6 months, several minor metabolites were detected, namely 4-hydroxytamoxifen N-oxide (metabolite VIII) and two dihydroxylated analogs (metabolites IX and X). The precise positions of the hydroxylation have yet to be determined.

Idoxifene: report of a phase I study in patients with metastatic breast cancer.

Idoxifene, a novel antiestrogen with reduced estrogenic activity when compared to tamoxifen, has been given to 20 women with metastatic breast cancer, 19 of whom had received tamoxifen previously, in doses between 10-60 mg. Idoxifene had an initial half-life of 15 h and a terminal half-life of 23.3 days. At a maintenance dose of 20 mg, a mean steady-state level of 173.5 ng/ml was achieved. Significant falls in luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone were seen, but the falls were not dose related. Idoxifene was well tolerated, with 11 patients complaining of mild symptoms similar to those seen with tamoxifen. Fourteen patients continued idoxifene therapy for 1-56 weeks; 4 patients showed stabilization of disease for 6-56 weeks and 2 patients showed a partial response.

Evidence that tamoxifen binds to calmodulin in a conformation different to that when binding to estrogen receptors, through structure-activity study on ring-fused analogues.

A ring-fused analogue of tamoxifen, which had previously been shown to have practically identical estrogen receptor (ER) affinity and antitumour potency against estrogen responsive cells as tamoxifen, failed to inhibit calmodulin-dependent cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. The substitution of an extra methyl group into the ring-fused analogue, at a position which the ethyl group of tamoxifen can occupy in one of its conformations, restored the calmodulin inhibition. Also, the replacement of the tamoxifen ethyl group by methyl diminishes calmodulin inhibition. Direct interaction of these tamoxifen analogues with calmodulin was demonstrated through the use of the fluorescent probe, 2-p-toluidinyl-naphthalene-6-sulfonic acid (TNS). These findings lead to the conclusion that tamoxifen binds to calmodulin in a conformation not accessible to the fused analogue and therefore likely to be different to that which binds to the ER. Also, the results on the ring-fused analogues indicate that the calmodulin binding cannot be essential for antitumour activity.

Enzyme-catalysed kinetic resolution of 4-endo-hydroxy-2-oxabicyclo[3.3.0]oct-7-en-3-one and employment of the pure enantiomers for the synthesis of anti-viral and hypocholestemic agents.

The endo-hydroxylactone (+/-)-(1) was resolved by enantioselective acetylation using Candida cylindracea lipase or preferentially Pseudomonas fluorescens lipase (pfl). Alternatively the corresponding butyrate (+/-)-(3) was hydrolysed with pfl to give the ester (+)-(1S,4R,5S)-(3) and the alcohol (-)-(1R,4S,5R)-(1). The latter compound was converted into carbovir (-)-(1R,4S)-(12) while the ester (+)-(3) was transformed into the delta-lactone (+)-(3R,5S)-(18). The exo-hydroxylactone (+/-)-(2) was resolved less efficiently by a trans-esterification process employing pfl and vinyl acetate.

A mechanistic hypothesis for DNA adduct formation by tamoxifen following hepatic oxidative metabolism.

A mechanism for the generation of electrophilic alkylating agents from tamoxifen by hepatic alpha-oxidation of its ethyl group is presented which accounts for the formation of covalent DNA adducts associated with its hepatic carcinogenicity. The key process leading to the generation of electrophilic alkylating agents from tamoxifen is postulated to be alpha-hydroxylation in conjunction with 4-hydroxylation or secondary metabolic conjugation. The mechanism explains the lack of DNA adducts observed for the tamoxifen analogues toremifene, droloxifene and idoxifene and accounts for the species variation in hepatic carcinogenicity of tamoxifen.

The importance of tamoxifen metabolism in tamoxifen-stimulated breast tumor growth.

The acquired ability of tamoxifen to stimulate tumor growth has been suggested as one mechanism for the development of treatment failure in breast cancer. We have reported that tamoxifen-stimulated MCF-7 breast tumors in nude mice display reduced tamoxifen levels as compared with tamoxifen-inhibited tumors and an altered metabolite profile with isomerization of trans-4-hydroxytamoxifen to a weak antiestrogen and the production of metabolite E, an estrogenic metabolite. To investigate further the importance of tamoxifen metabolism in this model, we quantified levels of tamoxifen and major metabolites in tamoxifen-stimulated as compared with tamoxifen-inhibited MCF-7 tumors growing in nude mice and employed tamoxifen analogs resistant to metabolism. Tamoxifen-stimulated tumors have a relative abundance of cis-4-hydroxytamoxifen and metabolite E. However, in vivo treatment of mice carrying tamoxifen-stimulated tumors with fixed-ring nonisomerizable tamoxifen analogs or with nafoxidine, a nonsteroidal antiestrogen with a different structure, nonetheless resulted in tumor growth stimulation. Tumors were also stimulated by a deoxytamoxifen analog resistant to conversion to metabolite E. Growth of tamoxifen-stimulated tumors was inhibited by a pure steroidal antiestrogen, ICI 182,780, suggesting the need for clinical trials of this drug in patients with tamoxifen resistance. Growth of tamoxifen-stimulated tumors was further stimulated by estrogen replenishment, and this estrogen stimulation could be blocked by tamoxifen indicating that tamoxifen has both agonist and antagonist properties in these tumors. This study suggests that tamoxifen-stimulated tumor growth in this model is not due to isomerization or metabolism of tamoxifen to less antiestrogenic or more estrogenic metabolites. The mechanisms by which tamoxifen acquires more potent in vivo agonist properties, resulting in tumor growth stimulation over time, remain to be defined.

Analysis of phase I and phase II metabolites of tamoxifen in breast cancer patients.

This study describes the application of LC/MS/MS to the determination of phase I and phase II metabolites of tamoxifen in urine and plasma samples of breast cancer patients. In the plasma extracts, in addition to the parent drug and N-desmethyltamoxifen, a minor metabolite tamoxifen N-oxide was identified for the first time in human. Four intact glucuronides of tamoxifen metabolites were isolated in the 24-hr posttreatment urine sample. They were the glucuronides of 4-hydroxytamoxifen, 4-hydroxy-N-desmethyltamoxifen, dihydroxytamoxifen, and a monohydroxy-N-desmethyltamoxifen. Hydroxylation followed by glucuronidation is a well-established metabolic route of tamoxifen, and this study describes for the first time direct analyses of these metabolites in human urine samples using on-line LC tandem MS.

Investigation of the mechanism of tamoxifen-stimulated breast tumor growth with nonisomerizable analogues of tamoxifen and metabolites.

BACKGROUND: The nonsteroidal anti-estrogen tamoxifen (TAM) is the front-line endocrine treatment for breast cancer, but disease recurrence is common. Treatment failure may occur because tumors become insensitive to TAM. Alternatively, resistance may occur because tumors become stimulated rather than inhibited by TAM. TAM-stimulated growth of MCF-7 human breast tumors has been observed in athymic mice after prolonged treatment with TAM. PURPOSE: Our purpose was to examine the mechanism of treatment failure by determining whether TAM-stimulated tumors acquire the ability to excrete TAM and its anti-estrogenic metabolites or to convert them to estrogenic compounds with weakened antiestrogenic activity. METHODS: We used high-pressure liquid chromatography to quantitate TAM and its metabolites in serum and tumors from ovariectomized athymic mice and in MCF-7 cells grown in vitro. We treated tumor-bearing mice with subcutaneous sustained-release preparations of estradiol, TAM, or a nonisomerizable (fixed-ring) analogue and then assessed the activity of these compounds on TAM-inhibited parental MCF-7 tumors and on TAM-stimulated MCF-7 TAM tumors. RESULTS: We found negligible differences in intratumoral TAM levels between TAM-inhibited parental MCF-7 tumors and TAM-stimulated MCF-7 TAM variants. We did not detect metabolite E (Met E), an estrogenic TAM metabolite, in serum or tumors. Using MCF-7 cells in vitro, we determined that the (Z) isomer of Met E, the form directly produced by TAM metabolism, must be present in the cell at a concentration of over 1000 ng/g to overcome growth inhibition by physiological levels of TAM and antiestrogenic metabolites, but the (E) isomer of Met E was effective at 10 ng/g. We reasoned that conversion of Met E from the (Z) (a weak estrogen) to (E) isomer (a potent estrogen) would be required if formation of Met E were responsible for TAM-stimulated growth. However, fixed-ring TAM, which can only form (Z) Met E, was shown to be as capable as TAM of initiating and maintaining anti-estrogen-stimulated growth of MCF-7 tumors in athymic mice. CONCLUSION: Metabolism and isomerization of TAM to estrogenic compounds is not the mechanism of TAM-stimulated growth in our model. IMPLICATION: Other potential mechanisms for TAM-stimulated growth, such as estrogen receptor mutation, must be investigated so that effective strategies can be devised to control breast cancer once therapy fails.

Point mutation of estrogen receptor (ER) in the ligand-binding domain changes the pharmacology of antiestrogens in ER-negative breast cancer cells stably expressing complementary DNAs for ER.

The antiestrogen tamoxifen is used in the treatment of hormone-responsive breast cancer. However, therapeutic failure has frequently been observed in both patients and animal models after long term treatment. We have studied the effect of a point mutation that leads to the substitution of Val for Gly at codon 400 in the ligand-binding domain of the estrogen receptor (ER) on estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities of 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OHT) and its derivatives. Stable ER transfectants derived from MDA-MB-231 CL10A, an ER-negative breast cancer cell line, have been used in these studies. 4-OHT and its fixed ring derivatives showed more estrogen-like activity in ER transfectants than in MCF-7, an ER-positive breast cancer cell line. In this study, 4-OHT was a partial agonist of cell growth in the transfectant S30 cells, which express the wild-type ER. However, it was a full agonist in the mutant ER transfectant ML alpha 2H, which expressed ER with Val at codon 400. The increased estrogenic activity of 4-OHT in ML alpha 2H cells was not due to the preferential isomerization of trans 4-OHT to cis 4-OHT, since the nonisomerizable fixed ring trans 4-OHT was a partial agonist for cell growth in S30 cells and was a full agonist in ML alpha 2H cells. Transient transfection using a reporter plasmid containing an estrogen response element demonstrated that fixed ring trans 4-OHT had estrogenic activity in ML alpha 2H cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Conformational analysis of the aromatase inhibitor 3-ethyl-3-(4-pyridyl)piperidine-2,6-dione (rogletimide) and discovery of potent 5-alkyl derivatives.

Analysis of the proton NMR spectra of 3-ethyl-3-(4-pyridyl)piperidine-2,6-dione (rogletimide, 1) shows that it exists in solution with the aromatic ring in an axial position; the same conformation was found for aminoglutethimide. Excess lithium diisopropylamide treatment of 1 formed a dianion which methylated at C-5. The major product with the methyl group trans to the pyridyl ring retained this ring in an axial position and had higher aromatase inhibitory potency than 1. The minor diastereoisomer with an equatorial pyridyl ring had low potency. Upon elongating the alkyl chain, particularly high inhibitory activity was found for the major product isomer having a C-5 octyl, coinciding with the high activity in C-3 and N-1 octyl derivatives of 1, but there was only a small difference in the activity between the enantiomers of 5-octyl-1 and activity was reduced rather than increased when octyl also replaced ethyl at C-3. The results partially support a previously described model comparing binding of androstenedione to aromatase in as much as an axial pyridyl ring is needed to mimic the axial C-19 methyl group of the steroid and bind to the heme component of the enzyme, but for the derivatives bearing a C-5 octyl, the function of the glutarimide ring seems to be simply as a spacer between the hydrophobic chain and the pyridyl ring.

On-line continuous-flow dialysis thermospray tandem mass spectrometry for quantitative screening of drugs in plasma: rogletimide.

The application of a continuous-flow dialysis system, consisting of a membrane dialyser and a trace enrichment column, in on-line combination with tandem mass spectrometry via a thermospray interface is described. The method is applied to the quantitation of drugs in complex biological matrices containing macromolecular interferences. The potential of the method is demonstrated by the quantitative analysis of the anti-cancer drug rogletimide in the plasma of patients after treatment.

Identification of 4-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione metabolites in prostatic cancer patients by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Liquid chromatography with thermospray mass spectrometry has proved to be an invaluable technique for the study of metabolic degradation of xenobiotics in complex biological fluids. This paper describes the detection of 4-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione and its metabolites in urinary extracts from prostatic cancer patients. Several metabolites were detected including 4 beta,5 alpha-dihydroxyandrostan-3,17-dione, 3,17-dihydroxyandrostan-4-ones and 3 alpha-hydroxy-5 beta-androstan-4,17-dione.

Characterisation of metabolites of 3-ethyl-3-(4-pyridyl)-piperidine-2,6-dione, a potential breast cancer drug.

The identification of metabolites from the pyridylglutarimide 3-ethyl-3-(4-pyridyl)piperidine-2,6-dione (PG, Rogletimide) was achieved using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with a thermospray interface (LC-TSP-MS). The urinary metabolites include PG N-oxide, the products of 4- and 5-hydroxylation in the piperidine residue (4- and 5-hydroxy-PG) and a gamma-butyrolactone derived via terminal hydroxylation in the ethyl residue. In addition to the above metabolites, several products of glutarimide ring-opening could be detected in the plasma extracts after multiple-dose treatment. Thus LC-TSP-MS is potentially a simple and rapid technique in studies of drug metabolism for the important glutarimide class of drug.