AgInS2 quantum dots for the detection of trinitrotoluene.

AgInS2 (AIS) quantum dots (QDs) were synthesized via a thermal decomposition reaction with dodecylamine as the ligand to help stabilize the QDs. This reaction procedure is relatively easy to implement, scalable to large batches (up to hundreds of milligrams of QDs are produced), and a convenient method for the synthesis of chalcogenide QDs. Metal powders of AgNO3 and In(NO3)3, were used as the metal precursors while diethyldithiocarbamate was used as the sulfur source. The AIS QDs were characterized via transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. As an application for these less toxic nanomaterials, we demonstrate the selective detection of Trinitrotoluene (TNT) at concentrations as low as 6 micromolar (µM) and without the functionalization of a ligand that is specifically designed to interact with TNT molecules. We also demonstrate a simple approach to patterning the AIS QDs onto filter paper, for the detection of TNT molecules by eye. Collectively, the ease of the synthesis of the less toxic AIS QDs, and the ability to detect TNT molecules by eye suggest an attractive route to highly sensitive and portable substrates for environmental monitoring, chemical warfare agent detection, and other applications.

High-density biosynthetic fuels: the intersection of heterogeneous catalysis and metabolic engineering.

Biosynthetic valencene, premnaspirodiene, and natural caryophyllene were hydrogenated and evaluated as high performance fuels. The parent sesquiterpenes were then isomerized to complex mixtures of hydrocarbons with the heterogeneous acid catalyst Nafion SAC-13. High density fuels with net heats of combustion ranging from 133-141 000 Btu gal(-1), or up to 13% higher than commercial jet fuel could be generated by this approach. The products of caryophyllene isomerization were primarily tricyclic hydrocarbons which after hydrogenation increased the fuel density by 6%. The isomerization of valencene and premnaspirodiene also generated a variety of sesquiterpenes, but in both cases the dominant product was δ-selinene. Ab initio calculations were conducted to determine the total electronic energies for the reactants and products. In all cases the results were in excellent agreement with the experimental distribution of isomers. The cetane numbers for the sesquiterpane fuels ranged from 20-32 and were highly dependent on the isomer distribution. Specific distillation cuts may have the potential to act as high density diesel fuels, while use of these hydrocarbons as additives to jet fuel will increase the range and/or time of flight of aircraft. In addition to the ability to generate high performance renewable fuels, the powerful combination of metabolic engineering and heterogeneous catalysis will allow for the preparation of a variety of sesquiterpenes with potential for pharmaceutical, flavor, and fragrance applications.

Synthesis, characterization, and cure chemistry of renewable bis(cyanate) esters derived from 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol.

A series of renewable bis(cyanate) esters have been prepared from bisphenols synthesized by condensation of 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol (creosol) with formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and propionaldehyde. The cyanate esters have been fully characterized by infrared spectroscopy, (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy, and single crystal X-ray diffraction. These compounds melt from 88 to 143 °C, while cured resins have glass transition temperatures from 219 to 248 °C, water uptake (96 h, 85 °C immersion) in the range of 2.05-3.21%, and wet glass transition temperatures from 174 to 193 °C. These properties suggest that creosol-derived cyanate esters may be useful for a wide variety of military and commercial applications. The cure chemistry of the cyanate esters has been studied with FTIR spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The results show that cyanate esters with more sterically demanding bridging groups cure more slowly, but also more completely than those with a bridging methylene group. In addition to the structural differences, the purity of the cyanate esters has a significant effect on both the cure chemistry and final Tg of the materials. In some cases, post-cure of the resins at 350 °C resulted in significant decomposition and off-gassing, but cure protocols that terminated at 250-300 °C generated void-free resin pucks without degradation. Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that cured resins were stable up to 400 °C and then rapidly degraded. TGA/FTIR and mass spectrometry results showed that the resins decomposed to phenols, isocyanic acid, and secondary decomposition products, including CO2. Char yields of cured resins under N2 ranged from 27 to 35%, while char yields in air ranged from 8 to 11%. These data suggest that resins of this type may potentially be recycled to parent phenols, creosol, and other alkylated creosols by pyrolysis in the presence of excess water vapor. The ability to synthesize these high temperature resins from a phenol (creosol) that can be derived from lignin, coupled with the potential to recycle the composites, provides a possible route to the production of sustainable, high-performance, thermosetting resins with reduced environmental impact.

Synthesis of renewable bisphenols from creosol.

A series of renewable bisphenols has been synthesized from creosol (2-methoxy-4-methylphenol) through stoichiometric condensation with short-chain aldehydes. Creosol can be readily produced from lignin, potentially allowing for the large scale synthesis of bisphenol A replacements from abundant waste biomass. The renewable bisphenols were isolated in good yields and purities without resorting to solvent-intense purification methods. Zinc acetate was shown to be a selective catalyst for the ortho-coupling of formaldehyde, but was unreactive when more sterically demanding aldehydes were used. Dilute HCl and HBr solutions were shown to be effective catalysts for the selective coupling of aldehydes in the position meta to the hydroxyl group. The acid solutions could be recycled and reused multiple times without decrease in activity or yield.

Exploiting conformational dynamics to facilitate formation and trapping of electron-transfer photoproducts in metal complexes.

Three new photoinduced electron donor-acceptor (D-A) systems are reported which juxtapose a Ru(II) excited-state donor with a bipyridinium acceptor via a conformationally active asymmetric aryl-substituted bipyridine ligand participating in the bridge between D and A. Across the series of complexes 1-3, steric bulk is sequentially added to tune the inter-ring dihedral angle theta between the bipyridine and the aryl substituent. Driving forces for photoinduced electron transfer (DeltaG(ET)) and back electron transfer (DeltaG(BET)) are reported based on electrochemical measurements of 1-3 as well as Franck-Condon analysis of emission spectra collected for three new donor model complexes 1'-3'. These preserve the substitution patterns on the aryl substituent in their respective D-A complexes but remove the bipyridinium acceptor. Both DeltaG(ET) and DeltaG(BET) are invariant to within 0.02 eV across the series. Upon visible photoexcitation of each of the D-A systems with approximately 100 fs laser pulses at 500 +/- 10 nm, an electron-transfer (ET) photoproduct is observed to form with a time constant of tau(ET) = 29 ps (1), 37 ps (2), and 57 ps (3). That ET remains relatively rapid throughout this series, even as steric bulk significantly increases the inter-ring dihedral angle theta, is attributed to the effects of ligand-based torsional dynamics driven by intraligand electron delocalization in the D*-A excited state manifold prior to ET. The lifetimes of the charge-separated states (tau(BET)) are also reported with tau(BET) = 98 ps (1), 217 ps (2), and 789 ps (3), representing a more than 8-fold increase across the series. This is attributed to reverse conformational dynamics in D(+)-A(-) driven by steric repulsions, which serves to minimize electronic coupling to the ground state. Steric control of ligand geometry and the range over which theta changes during conformational dynamics provides a new strategy to facilitate the formation and storage of charge-separated excited states.

Controlling electron transfer through the manipulation of structure and ligand-based torsional motions: a computational exploration of ruthenium donor-acceptor systems using density functional theory.

Computational studies using density functional theory (DFT) are reported for a series of donor-acceptor (DA) transition metal complexes and related excited-state and electron transfer (ET) photoproduct models. Three hybrid Hartree-Fock/DFT (HF/DFT) functionals, B3LYP, B3PW91, and PBE1PBE, are employed to characterize structural features implicated in the dynamical control of productive forward and energy wasting back ET events. Energies and optimized geometries are reported for the lowest energy singlet state in [Ru(dmb)(2)(bpy-phi-MV)](4+) (DA1), [Ru(dmb)(2)(bpy-o-tolyl-MV)](4+) (DA2), [Ru(dmb)(2)(bpy-2,6-Me(2)-phi-MV)](4+) (DA3), and [Ru(tmb)(2)(bpy-2,6-Me(2)-phi-MV)](4+) (DA3'), where dmb is 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine, tmb is 4,4',5,5'-tetramethyl-2,2'-bipyridine, MV is methyl viologen, and phi is a phenylene spacer. These indicate that the dihedral angle theta(1) between the aryl substituent and the bipyridine fragment to which it is bound, systematically increases with the addition of steric bulk. Energies, optimized geometries, and unpaired electron spin densities are also reported for the lowest energy triplet state of [Ru(dmb)(2)(4-p-tolyl-2,2'-bipyridine)](2+) (D1*), [Ru(dmb)(2)(4-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-2,2'-bipyridine)](2+) (D2*), [Ru(dmb)(2)(4-mesityl-2,2'-bipyridine)](2+) (D3*), and [Ru(tmb)(2)(4-mesityl-2,2'-bipyridine)](2+) (D3'*). Each of these serves as a model of a reactant excited state in the forward electron-transfer photochemistry allowing us to qualify and quantify the role of excited-state intraligand electron delocalization in driving substantial geometry changes (especially with respect to theta(1)) relative to its respective DA counterpart. Next, energies, optimized geometries, and spin densities are reported for the lowest energy triplet of each DA species: (3)DA1, (3)DA2, (3)DA3, and (3)DA3'. These are used to model the ET photoproduct and they indicate that theta(1) increases following ET, thus, verifying switch-like properties. Finally, we report data for geometry optimized DA1 and (3)DA1 in a continuum model of room temperature acetonitrile. This study shows a complete recovery of theta(1) to its ground state value which has implications in efforts to trap electrons in charge-separated states.

Ligand structure, conformational dynamics, and excited-state electron delocalization for control of photoinduced electron transfer rates in synthetic donor-bridge-acceptor systems.

Synthesis, ground-, and excited-state properties are reported for two new electron donor-bridge-acceptor (D-B-A) molecules and two new photophysical model complexes. The D-B-A molecules are [Ru(bpy)2(bpy-phi-MV)](PF6)4 (3) and [Ru(tmb)2(bpy-phi-MV)](PF6)4 (4), where bpy is 2,2'-bipyridine, tmb is 4,4',5,5'-tetramethyl-2,2'-bipyridine, MV is methyl viologen, and phi is a phenylene spacer. Their model complexes are [Ru(bpy)2(p-tol-bpy)](PF6)2 (1) and [Ru(tmb)2(p-tol-bpy)](PF6)2 (2), where p-tolyl-bpy is 4-(p-tolyl)-2,2'-bipyridine. Photophysical characterization of 1 and 2 indicates that 2.17 eV and 2.12 eV are stored in their respective (3)MLCT (metal-to-ligand charge transfer) excited state. These values along with electrochemical measurements show that photoinduced electron transfer (D*-B-A-->D (+)-B-A(-)) is favorable in 3 and 4 with DeltaG degrees(ET)=-0.52 eV and -0.62 eV, respectively. The driving force for the reverse process (D(+)-B-A(-) --> D-B-A) is also reported: DeltaG degrees(BET)=-1.7 eV for 3 and -1.5 eV for 4. Transient absorption (TA) spectra for 3 and 4 in 298 K acetonitrile provide evidence that reduced methyl viologen is observable at 50 ps following excitation. Detailed TA kinetics confirm this, and the data are fit to a model to determine both forward (k(ET)) and back (k(BET)) electron transfer rate constants: k(ET)=2.6 x 10(10) s(-1) for 3 and 2.8 x 10(10) s(-1) for 4; k(BET)=0.62 x 10(10) s(-1) for 3 and 1.37 x 10(10) s(-1) for 4. The similar rate constants k ET for 3 and 4 despite a 100 meV driving force (DeltaG degrees(ET)) increase suggests that forward electron transfer in these molecules in room temperature acetonitrile is nearly barrierless as predicted by the Marcus theory. The reduction in electron transfer reorganization energy necessary for this barrierless reactivity is attributed to excited-state electron delocalization in the (3)MLCT excited states of 3 and 4, an effect that is made possible by excited-state conformational changes in the aryl-substituted ligands of these complexes.