Selective Inhibitors of Histone Deacetylases 1 and 2 Synergize with Azacitidine in Acute Myeloid Leukemia.

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous group of hematopoietic stem cell disorders characterized by defects in myeloid differentiation and increased proliferation of neoplastic hematopoietic precursor cells. Outcomes for patients with AML remain poor, highlighting the need for novel treatment options. Aberrant epigenetic regulation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AML, and inhibitors of DNA methyltransferase or histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes have exhibited activity in preclinical AML models. Combination studies with HDAC inhibitors plus DNA methyltransferase inhibitors have potential beneficial clinical activity in AML, however the toxicity profiles of non-selective HDAC inhibitors in the combination setting limit their clinical utility. In this work, we describe the preclinical development of selective inhibitors of HDAC1 and HDAC2, which are hypothesized to have improved safety profiles, for combination therapy in AML. We demonstrate that selective inhibition of HDAC1 and HDAC2 is sufficient to achieve efficacy both as a single agent and in combination with azacitidine in preclinical models of AML, including established AML cell lines, primary leukemia cells from AML patient bone marrow samples and in vivo xenograft models of human AML. Gene expression profiling of AML cells treated with either an HDAC1/2 inhibitor, azacitidine, or the combination of both have identified a list of genes involved in transcription and cell cycle regulation as potential mediators of the combinatorial effects of HDAC1/2 inhibition with azacitidine. Together, these findings support the clinical evaluation of selective HDAC1/2 inhibitors in combination with azacitidine in AML patients.

Proinvasion metastasis drivers in early-stage melanoma are oncogenes.

Clinical and genomic evidence suggests that the metastatic potential of a primary tumor may be dictated by prometastatic events that have additional oncogenic capability. To test this "deterministic" hypothesis, we adopted a comparative oncogenomics-guided function-based strategy involving: (1) comparison of global transcriptomes of two genetically engineered mouse models with contrasting metastatic potential, (2) genomic and transcriptomic profiles of human melanoma, (3) functional genetic screen for enhancers of cell invasion, and (4) evidence of expression selection in human melanoma tissues. This integrated effort identified six genes that are potently proinvasive and oncogenic. Furthermore, we show that one such gene, ACP5, confers spontaneous metastasis in vivo, engages a key pathway governing metastasis, and is prognostic in human primary melanomas.

Lysyl oxidase propeptide sensitizes pancreatic and breast cancer cells to doxorubicin-induced apoptosis.

RAS mutations or its activation by upstream receptor tyrosine kinases are frequently associated with poor response of carcinomas to chemotherapy. The 18 kDa propeptide domain of lysyl oxidase (LOX-PP) released from the secreted precursor protein (Pro-LOX) has been shown to inhibit RAS signaling and the transformed phenotype of breast, pancreatic, lung, and prostate cancer cells in culture, and formation of tumors by Her-2/neu-driven breast cancer cells in a mouse xenograft model. Here, we tested the effects of LOX-PP on MIA PaCa-2 pancreatic cancer cells, driven by mutant RAS. In MIA PaCa-2 cells in culture, LOX-PP attenuated the ERK and AKT activities and decreased the levels of the NF-κB p65 and RelB subunits and cyclin D1, which are activated by RAS signaling. In mouse xenograft growth, LOX-PP reduced growth of tumors by these pancreatic cancer cells, and the nuclear levels of the p65 NF-κB subunit and cyclin D1 proteins. While biological agents attenuate tumor growth when used alone, often they have additive or synergistic effects when used in combination with chemotherapeutic agents. Thus, we next tested the hypotheses that LOX-PP sensitizes pancreatic and breast cancer cells to the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin. Purified LOX-PP enhanced the cytotoxic effects of doxorubicin in pancreatic and breast cancer cells, as judged by ATP production, Cell Death ELISA assays, caspase 3 activation, PARP cleavage, and Annexin V staining. Thus, LOX-PP potentiates the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin on breast and pancreatic cancer cells, warranting additional studies with a broader spectrum of current cancer treatment modalities.

A loss-of-function polymorphism in the propeptide domain of the LOX gene and breast cancer.

The lysyl oxidase (LOX) gene reverted Ras transformation of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and tumor formation by gastric cancer cells, which frequently carry mutant RAS genes. The secreted lysyl oxidase proenzyme is processed to a propeptide (LOX-PP) and a functional enzyme (LOX). Unexpectedly, the tumor suppressor activity mapped to the LOX-PP domain, which inhibited tumor formation and the invasive phenotype of NF639 breast cancer cells driven by human epidermal growth factor receptor-2/neu, which signals via Ras. A single-nucleotide polymorphism, G473A (rs1800449), resulting in an Arg158Gln substitution in a highly conserved region within LOX-PP, occurs with an average 473A allele carrier frequency of 24.6% in the HapMap database, but was present in many breast cancer cell lines examined. Here, we show that the Arg-to-Gln substitution profoundly impairs the ability of LOX-PP to inhibit the invasive phenotype and tumor formation of NF639 cells in a xenograft model. LOX-PP Gln displayed attenuated ability to oppose the effects of LOX, which promoted a more invasive phenotype. In a case-control study of African American women, a potential association of the Gln-encoding A allele was seen with increased risk of estrogen receptor (ER)-alpha-negative invasive breast cancer in African American women. Consistently, LOX gene expression was higher in ER-negative versus ER-positive primary breast cancers, and LOX-PP Gln was unable to inhibit invasion by ER-negative cell lines. Thus, these findings identify for the first time genetic polymorphism as a mechanism of impaired tumor suppressor function of LOX-PP and suggest that it may play an etiologic role in ER-negative breast cancer.

RelB NF-kappaB represses estrogen receptor alpha expression via induction of the zinc finger protein Blimp1.

Aberrant constitutive expression of NF-kappaB subunits, reported in more than 90% of breast cancers and multiple other malignancies, plays pivotal roles in tumorigenesis. Higher RelB subunit expression was demonstrated in estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha)-negative breast cancers versus ERalpha-positive ones, due in part to repression of RelB synthesis by ERalpha signaling. Notably, RelB promoted a more invasive phenotype in ERalpha-negative cancers via induction of the BCL2 gene. We report here that RelB reciprocally inhibits ERalpha synthesis in breast cancer cells, which contributes to a more migratory phenotype. Specifically, RelB is shown for the first time to induce expression of the zinc finger repressor protein Blimp1 (B-lymphocyte-induced maturation protein), the critical mediator of B- and T-cell development, which is transcribed from the PRDM1 gene. Blimp1 protein repressed ERalpha (ESR1) gene transcription. Commensurately higher Blimp1/PRDM1 expression was detected in ERalpha-negative breast cancer cells and primary breast tumors. Induction of PRDM1 gene expression was mediated by interaction of Bcl-2, localized in the mitochondria, with Ras. Thus, the induction of Blimp1 represents a novel mechanism whereby the RelB NF-kappaB subunit mediates repression, specifically of ERalpha, thereby promoting a more migratory phenotype.

The lysyl oxidase pro-peptide attenuates fibronectin-mediated activation of focal adhesion kinase and p130Cas in breast cancer cells.

The lysyl oxidase (LOX) gene encodes an enzyme (LOX) critical for extracellular matrix maturation. The LOX gene has also been shown to inhibit the transforming activity of Ras oncogene signaling. In particular, the pro-peptide domain (LOX-PP) released from the secreted precursor protein (Pro-LOX) was found to inhibit the transformed phenotype of breast, lung, and pancreatic cancer cells. However, the mechanisms of action of LOX-PP remained to be determined. Here, the ability of LOX-PP to attenuate the integrin signaling pathway, which leads to phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and the activation of its downstream target p130Cas, was determined. In NF639 breast cancer cells driven by Her-2/neu, which signals via Ras, ectopic Pro-LOX and LOX-PP expression inhibited fibronectin-stimulated protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Importantly, phosphorylation of FAK on Tyr-397 and Tyr-576, and p130Cas were substantially reduced. The amount of endogenous p130Cas in the Triton X-100-insoluble protein fraction, and fibronectin-activated haptotaxis were decreased. Interestingly, expression of mature LOX enzyme enhanced fibronectin-stimulated integrin signaling. Of note, treatment with recombinant LOX-PP selectively reduced fibronectin-mediated haptotaxis of NF639, MDA-MB-231, and Hs578T breast cancer cells. Thus, evidence is provided that one mechanism of action of LOX-PP tumor suppression is to block fibronectin-stimulated signaling and cell migration.

NF-kappaB and epithelial to mesenchymal transition of cancer.

During progression of an in situ to an invasive cancer, epithelial cells lose expression of proteins that promote cell-cell contact, and acquire mesenchymal markers, which promote cell migration and invasion. These events bear extensive similarities to the process of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), which has been recognized for several decades as critical feature of embryogenesis. The NF-kappaB family of transcription factors plays pivotal roles in both promoting and maintaining an invasive phenotype. After briefly describing the NF-kappaB family and its role in cancer, in this review we will first describe studies elucidating the functions of NF-kappaB in transcription of master regulator genes that repress an epithelial phenotype. In the second half, we discuss the roles of NF-kappaB in control of mesenchymal genes critical for promoting and maintaining an invasive phenotype. Overall, NF-kappaB is identified as a key target in prevention and in the treatment of invasive carcinomas.

Repression of BCL2 by the tumor suppressor activity of the lysyl oxidase propeptide inhibits transformed phenotype of lung and pancreatic cancer cells.

The gene encoding lysyl oxidase (LOX) was identified as the ras recision gene (rrg), with the ability to revert Ras-mediated transformation of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. Mutations in RAS genes have been found in approximately 25% of lung cancers and in 85% of pancreatic cancers. In microarray analysis, these cancers were found to display reduced LOX gene expression. Thus, the ability of the LOX gene to repress the transformed phenotype of these cancer cells was tested. LOX is synthesized as a 50-kDa secreted precursor Pro-LOX that is processed to the 32-kDa active enzyme (LOX) and to an 18-kDa propeptide (LOX-PP). Recently, we mapped the rrg activity of Pro-LOX to the LOX-PP in Ras-transformed NIH 3T3 cells. Ectopic Pro-LOX and LOX-PP expression in H1299 lung cancer cells inhibited growth in soft agar and invasive colony formation in Matrigel and reduced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt, with LOX-PP showing substantially higher activity. Similarly, LOX-PP expression in PANC-1 pancreatic cancer cells effectively reduced ERK and Akt activity and inhibited growth in soft agar and ability of these cells to migrate. Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and its target gene BCL2, which are overexpressed in 70% to 75% of pancreatic cancers, have recently been implicated in invasive phenotype. LOX-PP substantially reduced NF-kappaB and Bcl-2 levels. Reintroduction of Bcl-2 into PANC-1 or H1299 cells expressing LOX-PP restored the transformed phenotype, suggesting that Bcl-2 is an essential target. Thus, LOX-PP potently inhibits invasive phenotype of lung and pancreatic cancer cells, suggesting potential therapeutic applications in treatment of these cancers.

The tumor suppressor activity of the lysyl oxidase propeptide reverses the invasive phenotype of Her-2/neu-driven breast cancer.

Expression of the lysyl oxidase gene (LOX) was found to inhibit the transforming activity of the ras oncogene in NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and was hence named the ras recision gene (rrg). Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is synthesized and secreted as a 50-kDa inactive proenzyme (Pro-LOX), which is processed by proteolytic cleavage to a functional 32-kDa enzyme and an 18-kDa propeptide (LOX-PP). Recently, the ras recision activity of the LOX gene in NIH 3T3 cells was mapped to its propeptide region. Here, we show for the first time that LOX-PP inhibits transformation of breast cancer cells driven by Her-2/neu, an upstream activator of Ras. LOX-PP expression in Her-2/neu-driven breast cancer cells in culture suppressed Akt, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, and nuclear factor-kappaB activation. Her-2/neu-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition was reverted by LOX-PP, as judged by reduced levels of Snail and vimentin; up-regulation of E-cadherin, gamma-catenin, and estrogen receptor alpha; and decreased ability to migrate or to form branching colonies in Matrigel. Furthermore, LOX-PP inhibited Her-2/neu tumor formation in a nude mouse xenograft model. Thus, LOX-PP inhibits signaling cascades induced by Her-2/neu that promote a more invasive phenotype and may provide a novel avenue for treatment of Her-2/neu-driven breast carcinomas.

Unfolding of human proinsulin. Intermediates and possible role of its C-peptide in folding/unfolding.

We have investigated the in vitro refolding process of human proinsulin (HPI) and an artificial mini-C derivative of HPI (porcine insulin precursor, PIP), and found that they have significantly different disulfide-formation pathways. HPI and PIP differ in their amino acid sequences due to the presence of the C-peptide linker found in HPI, therefore suggesting that the C-peptide linker may be responsible for the observed difference in folding behaviour. However, the manner in which the C-peptide contributes to this difference is still unknown. We have used both the disulfide scrambling method and a redox-equilibrium assay to assess the stability of the disulfide bridges. The results show that disulfide reshuffling is easier to induce in HPI than in PIP by the addition of thiol reagent. Thus, the C-peptide may affect the unique folding pathway of HPI by allowing the disulfide bonds of HPI to be easily accessible. The detailed processes of HPI unfolding by reduction of its disulfide bonds and by disulfide scrambling methods were also investigated. In the reductive unfolding process no accumulation of intermediates was detected. In the process of unfolding by disulfide scrambling, HPI gradually rearranged its disulfide bonds to form three major isomers G1, G2 and G3. The most abundant isomer, G1, contains the B7-B19 disulfide bridge. Based on far-UV CD spectra, native gel analysis and cleavage by endoproteinase V8, the G1 isomer has been shown to resemble the intermediate P4 found in the refolding process of HPI. Finally, the major isomer G1 is allowed to refold to native protein HPI by disulfide rearrangement, which indicates that a similar molecular mechanism may exist for the unfolding and refolding process of HPI.

In vitro refolding of human proinsulin. Kinetic intermediates, putative disulfide-forming pathway folding initiation site, and potential role of C-peptide in folding process.

Human insulin is a double-chain peptide that is synthesized in vivo as a single-chain human proinsulin (HPI). We have investigated the disulfide-forming pathway of a single-chain porcine insulin precursor (PIP). Here we further studied the folding pathway of HPI in vitro. While the oxidized refolding process of HPI was quenched, four obvious intermediates (namely P1, P2, P3, and P4, respectively) with three disulfide bridges were isolated and characterized. Contrary to the folding pathway of PIP, no intermediates with one- or two-disulfide bonds could be captured under different refolding conditions. CD analysis showed that P1, P2, and P3 retained partially structural conformations, whereas P4 contained little secondary structure. Based on the time-dependent distribution, disulfide pair analysis, and disulfide-reshuffling process of the intermediates, we have proposed that the folding pathway of HPI is significantly different from that of PIP. These differences reveal that the C-peptide not only facilitates the folding of HPI but also governs its kinetic folding pathway of HPI. Detailed analysis of the molecular folding process reveals that there are some similar folding mechanisms between PIP and HPI. These similarities imply that the initiation site for the folding of PIP/HPI may reside in the central alpha-helix of the B-chain. The formation of disulfide A20-B19 may guide the transfer of the folding information from the B-chain template to the unstructured A-chain. Furthermore, the implications of this in vitro refolding study on the in vivo folding process of HPI have been discussed.