Mosquito salivary apyrase regulates blood meal hemostasis and facilitates malaria parasite transmission.

The evolution of hematophagy involves a series of adaptations that allow blood-feeding insects to access and consume blood efficiently while managing and circumventing the host's hemostatic and immune responses. Mosquito, and other insects, utilize salivary proteins to regulate these responses at the bite site during and after blood feeding. We investigated the function of Anopheles gambiae salivary apyrase (AgApyrase) in regulating hemostasis in the mosquito blood meal and in Plasmodium transmission. Our results demonstrate that salivary apyrase, a known inhibitor of platelet aggregation, interacts with and activates tissue plasminogen activator, facilitating the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin, a human protease that degrades fibrin and facilitates Plasmodium transmission. We show that mosquitoes ingest a substantial amount of apyrase during blood feeding, which reduces coagulation in the blood meal by enhancing fibrin degradation and inhibiting platelet aggregation. AgApyrase significantly enhanced Plasmodium infection in the mosquito midgut, whereas AgApyrase immunization inhibited Plasmodium mosquito infection and sporozoite transmission. This study highlights a pivotal role for mosquito salivary apyrase for regulation of hemostasis in the mosquito blood meal and for Plasmodium transmission to mosquitoes and to the mammalian host, underscoring the potential for strategies to prevent malaria transmission.

A novel violet fluorescent protein contains a unique oxidized tyrosine as the simplest chromophore ever reported in fluorescent proteins.

We describe an engineered violet fluorescent protein from the lancelet Branchiostoma floridae (bfVFP). This is the first example of a GFP-like fluorescent protein with a stable fluorescent chromophore lacking an imidazolinone ring; instead, it consists of oxidized tyrosine 68 flanked by glycine 67 and alanine 69. bfVFP contains the simplest chromophore reported in fluorescent proteins and was generated from the yellow protein lanFP10A2 by two synergetic mutations, S148H and C166I. The chromophore structure was confirmed crystallographically and by high-resolution mass spectrometry. The photophysical characteristics of bfVFP (323/430 nm, quantum yield 0.33, and Ec 14,300 M-1  cm-1 ) make it potentially useful for multicolor experiments to expand the excitation range of available FP biomarkers and Förster resonance energy transfer with blue and cyan fluorescent protein acceptors.

Amino acid residue at the 165th position tunes EYFP chromophore maturation. A structure-based design.

For the whole GFP family, a few cases, when a single mutation in the chromophore environment strongly inhibits maturation, were described. Here we study EYFP-F165G - a variant of the enhanced yellow fluorescent protein - obtained by a single F165G replacement, and demonstrated multiple fluorescent states represented by the minor emission peaks in blue and yellow ranges (~470 and ~530 nm), and the major peak at ~330 nm. The latter has been assigned to tryptophan fluorescence, quenched due to excitation energy transfer to the mature chromophore in the parental EYFP protein. EYFP-F165G crystal structure revealed two general independent routes of post-translational chemistry, resulting in two main states of the polypeptide chain with the intact chromophore forming triad (~85%) and mature chromophore (~15%). Our experiments thus highlighted important stereochemical role of the 165th position strongly affecting spectral characteristics of the protein. On the basis of the determined EYFP-F165G three-dimensional structure, new variants with ~ 2-fold improved brightness were engineered.

Structure-Based Rational Design of Two Enhanced Bacterial Lipocalin Blc Tags for Protein-PAINT Super-resolution Microscopy.

Super-resolution fluorescent imaging in living cells remains technically challenging, largely due to the photodecomposition of fluorescent tags. The recently suggested protein-PAINT is the only super-resolution technique available for prolonged imaging of proteins in living cells. It is realized with complexes of fluorogen-activating proteins, expressed as fusions, and solvatochromic synthetic dyes. Once photobleached, the dye in the complex is replaced with a fresh fluorogen available in the sample. With suitable kinetics, this replacement creates fluorescence blinking required for attaining super-resolution and overcomes photobleaching associated with the loss of an irreplaceable fluorophore. Here we report on the rational design of two protein-PAINT tags based on the 1.58 Å crystal structure of the DiB1:M739 complex, an improved green-emitting DiB3/F74V:M739 and a new orange-emitting DiB3/F53L:M739. They outperform previously reported DiB-based tags to become best in class biomarkers for protein-PAINT. The new tags advance protein-PAINT from the proof-of-concept to a reliable tool suitable for prolonged super-resolution imaging of intracellular proteins in fixed and living cells and two-color PAINT-like nanoscopy with a single fluorogen.

Two independent routes of post-translational chemistry in fluorescent protein FusionRed.

The crystal structure of monomeric red fluorescent protein FusionRed (λex/λem 580/608 mn) has been determined at 1.09 Å resolution and revealed two alternative routes of post-translational chemistry, resulting in distinctly different products. The refinement occupancies suggest the 60:40 ratio of the mature Met63-Tyr64-Gly65 chromophore and uncyclized chromophore-forming tripeptide with the protein backbone cleaved between Met63 and the preceding Phe62 and oxidized Cα-Cß bond of Tyr64. We analyzed the structures of FusionRed and several related red fluorescent proteins, identified structural elements causing hydrolysis of the peptide bond, and verified their impact by single point mutagenesis. These findings advance the understanding of the post-translational chemistry of GFP-like fluorescent proteins beyond the canonical cyclization-dehydration-oxidation mechanism. They also show that impaired cyclization does not prevent chromophore-forming tripeptide from further transformations enabled by the same set of catalytic residues. Our mutagenesis efforts resulted in inhibition of the peptide backbone cleavage, and a FusionRed variant with ~30% improved effective brightness.

Structural Factors Enabling Successful GFP-Like Proteins with Alanine as the Third Chromophore-Forming Residue.

GFP-like proteins from lancelets (lanFPs) is a new and least studied group that already generated several outstanding biomarkers (mNeonGreen is the brightest FP to date) and has some unique features. Here, we report the study of four homologous lanFPs with GYG and GYA chromophores. Until recently, it was accepted that the third chromophore-forming residue in GFP-like proteins should be glycine, and efforts to replace it were in vain. Now, we have the first structure of a fluorescent protein with a successfully matured chromophore that has alanine as the third chromophore-forming residue. Consideration of the protein structures revealed two alternative routes of posttranslational transformation, resulting in either chromophore maturation or hydrolysis of GYG/GYA tripeptide. Both transformations are catalyzed by the same set of catalytic residues, Arg88 and Glu35-Wat-Glu211 cluster, whereas the residues in positions 62 and 102 shift the equilibrium between chromophore maturation and hydrolysis.

Crystal structure of the fluorescent protein from Dendronephthya sp. in both green and photoconverted red forms.

The fluorescent protein from Dendronephthya sp. (DendFP) is a member of the Kaede-like group of photoconvertible fluorescent proteins with a His62-Tyr63-Gly64 chromophore-forming sequence. Upon irradiation with UV and blue light, the fluorescence of DendFP irreversibly changes from green (506 nm) to red (578 nm). The photoconversion is accompanied by cleavage of the peptide backbone at the C(α)-N bond of His62 and the formation of a terminal carboxamide group at the preceding Leu61. The resulting double C(α)=C(ß) bond in His62 extends the conjugation of the chromophore π system to include imidazole, providing the red fluorescence. Here, the three-dimensional structures of native green and photoconverted red forms of DendFP determined at 1.81 and 2.14 Šresolution, respectively, are reported. This is the first structure of photoconverted red DendFP to be reported to date. The structure-based mutagenesis of DendFP revealed an important role of positions 142 and 193: replacement of the original Ser142 and His193 caused a moderate red shift in the fluorescence and a considerable increase in the photoconversion rate. It was demonstrated that hydrogen bonding of the chromophore to the Gln116 and Ser105 cluster is crucial for variation of the photoconversion rate. The single replacement Gln116Asn disrupts the hydrogen bonding of Gln116 to the chromophore, resulting in a 30-fold decrease in the photoconversion rate, which was partially restored by a further Ser105Asn replacement.

Crystal violet dye in complexes with amphiphilic anionic calix[4]resorcinarenes: binding by aggregates and individual molecules.

Here, we report on a systematic study of six calix[4]resorcinarene macrocycles bearing eight carboxylic groups on the upper rim and four different lower rim substituents that are either aliphatic (2, 4, and 5) or alkylaromatic (1, 3, and 6). The macrocycles were studied in their individual aqueous solutions and in the presence of triphenylmethane dye crystal violet. It was found that binding of crystal violet with aggregated macrocycles shields it from the bulk of solution, preventing its discoloration under basic conditions and electrochemical reduction on the glassy carbon electrode. Most efficient shielding, reducing the rate of discoloration more than 173 times, as compared to solution with no macrocycle, was achieved with 6 forming aggregates of average 72 molecules in 0.1 mM solutions.

Recognition of concanavalin A at the interface between a solvent polymeric membrane and an aqueous sample monitored by electric impedance spectroscopy.

In a novel biosensing approach, a stearyl-[small beta]-d-glucopyranoside layer is formed by self-organization at the interface between a solvent polymeric membrane and the aqueous sample phase and its interaction with concanavalin A is detected by electric impedance spectroscopy.