Cell-based serum anticholinergic activity assay and working memory in cognitively healthy older adults before and after scopolamine: An exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: A new cell-based serum anticholinergic activity (cSAA) assay that measures anticholinergic activity specifically at muscarinic M1 receptors and eliminates many of the drawbacks of the existing assay was developed by our team. AIMS: We aimed to study the relationship between changes in working memory and executive function with changes in cSAA using the new assay in cognitively healthy older adults. METHODS: Cognitively healthy participants aged 50 years and above, received a single dose of 0.4 mg of intravenous scopolamine. Cognition and cSAA levels were measured before and 30 min after receiving scopolamine. Cognition was measured using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. RESULTS: Ten participants were recruited, and nine (mean age = 69.8, SD = 9.5, range 59-86 years) completed the study. Following scopolamine, participants experienced an increase in cSAA (cSAA pre = 0.90 ± 0.97 vs cSAA post = 12.0 ± 3.70 pmol/L; t-test (df = (8) = -9.5, p < 0.001). In addition, there was an association between change in cSAA and changes in working memory (Spearman's ρ = 0.68, p = 0.042) and executive function (Spearman's ρ = 0.72, p = 0.027). CONCLUSIONS: In our sample of cognitively healthy older adults, the new cSAA assay was able to quantify the scopolamine induced increase in anticholinergic load which correlated significantly with the observed decline in working memory and executive function.

Antidepressant activity of pharmacological and genetic deactivation of the small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel subtype-3.

RATIONALE: The voltage-insensitive, small-conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channel is a key regulator of neuronal depolarization and is implicated in the pathophysiology of depressive disorders. OBJECTIVE: We ascertained whether the SK channel is impaired in the chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) model and whether it can serve as a molecular target of antidepressant action. METHODS: We assessed the depressive-like behavioral phenotype of CUS-exposed rats and performed post-mortem SK channel binding and activity-dependent zif268 mRNA analyses on their brains. To begin an assessment of SK channel subtypes involved, we examined the effects of genetic and pharmacological inhibition of the SK3 channel using conditional knockout mice and selective SK3 channel negative allosteric modulators (NAMs). RESULTS: We found that [125I]apamin binding to SK channels is increased in the prefrontal cortex and decreased in the hippocampus, an effect that was associated with reciprocal levels of zif268 mRNA transcripts indicating abnormal regional cell activity in this model. We found that genetic and pharmacological manipulations significantly decreased immobility in the forced swim test without altering general locomotor activity, a hallmark of antidepressant-like activity. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these findings link depression-related neural and behavioral pathophysiology with abnormal SK channel functioning and suggest that this can be reversed by the selective inhibition of SK3 channels.

A calcium fluorescence assay for quantification of cholinergic receptor activity of clinical drugs in serum - comparison with radioactive methods.

A new approach is described for quantifying cholinergic receptor activation status human blood samples, based on M1 receptor-driven mobilization of intracellular calcium stores. The assay identifies anticholinergic as well as agonist cholinergic receptor activity. As a cell-based procedure, the assay shares the high efficiency of recently developed M1 receptor binding protocols, but differs from the latter in relying on fluorescence rather than radioactivity measurements. The assay targets a true functional effect insofar as it reflects a time-dependent process of net changes in activation of cholinergic receptors. Results from experiments with M1-expressing CHO cells exposed to a fluorogenic dye and the standard cholinergic agonist carbachol revealed the assay's ability to isolate pure agonist effects of clinical compounds as well as the net effects of serum containing agonist and antagonist factors. The new protocol thus provides two additional quantitative indices of cholinergic receptor activity in human serum, namely pure agonistic effects and net agonist/antagonist effects. As such, it could constitute a very useful addition to efforts to quantify global cholinergic status in human serum in various clinical conditions. By relying on fluorescence measures it should also prove much more accessible than radioactivity-based protocols.

Antidepressant action of transcranial direct current stimulation in olfactory bulbectomised adolescent rats.

BACKGROUND: Antidepressant drugs in adolescent depression are sometimes mired by efficacy issues and paradoxical effects. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) could represent an alternative. AIMS/METHODS: We tested the antidepressant action of prefrontal tDCS and paroxetine (20 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) in olfactory bulbectomised (OBX) adolescent rats. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and in situ hybridisation, we examined treatment-induced changes in plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and brain serotonin transporter (SERT) and 5-HT-1A mRNA. RESULTS: OBX-induced anhedonia-like reductions in sucrose preference (SP) correlated with open field (OF) hyperactivity. These were accompanied by decreased zif268 mRNA in the piriform/amygdalopiriform transition area, and increased zif268 mRNA in the hypothalamus. Acute paroxetine (2 days) led to a profound SP reduction, an effect blocked by combined tDCS-paroxetine administration. Chronic (14 days) tDCS attenuated hyperlocomotion and its combination with paroxetine blocked OBX-induced SP reduction. Correlations among BDNF, SP and hyperlocomotion scores were altered by OBX but were normalised by tDCS-paroxetine co-treatment. In the brain, paroxetine increased zif268 mRNA in the hippocampal CA1 subregion and decreased it in the claustrum. This effect was blocked by tDCS co-administration, which also increased zif268 in CA2. tDCS-paroxetine co-treatment had variable effects on 5-HT1A receptors and SERT mRNA. 5-HT1A receptor changes were found exclusively within depression-related parahippocampal/hippocampal subregions, and SERT changes within fear/defensive response-modulating brainstem circuits. CONCLUSION: These findings point towards potential synergistic efficacies of tDCS and paroxetine in the OBX model of adolescent depression via mechanisms associated with altered expression of BDNF, 5-HT1A, SERT and zif268 in discrete corticolimbic areas.

Relationships Between a New Cultured Cell-Based Serum Anticholinergic Activity Assay and Anticholinergic Burden Scales or Cognitive Performance in Older Adults.

OBJECTIVES: Anticholinergic burden has been associated with deleterious effects on cognition particularly in those with an underlying brain disorder. We developed a new assay based on cultured cells to measure serum anticholinergic activity (cSAA). We report on its relationships with established anticholinergic burden rating scales and cognitive assessments in older patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or major depressive disorder (MDD) in remission or both. DESIGN: The study was cross sectional in nature. SETTING: This was a five-centre study conducted in Toronto, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: Serum samples were collected and cSAA levels were measured in 311 participants aged 60 years or older (154 with MCI, 57 with MDD, and 100 with MCI + MDD). MEASUREMENTS: The cSAA assay uses radio-ligand binding to cultured cells stably expressing the muscarinic M1 receptors, with an added procedure to remove potential confounds associated with serum proteins. Lists of medications were used to calculate Anticholinergic Burden and Anticholinergic Drug Scale total scores. Participants also completed a comprehensive cognitive battery. RESULTS: Higher cSAA levels were associated with higher anticholinergic burden and anticholinergic drug scale scores, and also with lower performance on executive function tests, after adjusting for age, gender, education, and diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: These results support the use of the cSAA assay as a laboratory measure of anticholinergic burden.

Global DNA methylation in suicidal ideation and suicide attempt in schizophrenia.

Suicidal behavior is influenced by many risk factors such as childhood trauma, stressful life events, genetic factors, and severe mental illnesses. Suicidal ideation is present in 50% of schizophrenia patients and is associated with an elevated risk of suicide attempt. Studies have shown that epigenetic mechanisms are associated with suicidal behavior in schizophrenia. Although several studies have suggested the importance of epigenetic factors in suicidal ideation and behavior, no studies have investigated global methylation in association with these two phenotypes. This study investigated global methylation level/change in association with current and emergent suicidal ideation and also with suicide attempt. Forty-seven schizophrenia patients were assessed for the association between global methylation and suicide attempt, and a subsample of these patients (n = 27) was assessed for current suicidal ideation. Afterwards, we performed a longitudinal analysis in which global methylation changes during a 3-month follow-up were compared between patients with and without emergent suicidal ideation. This methylation analysis did not find evidence for a significant association between global methylation and suicidal ideation or suicide attempt. To date, there are no robust biomarkers predicting suicidal ideation or behavior in psychotic patients. This study is the first to investigate global methylation in predicting suicidal ideation and behavior. Although we did not find evidence for an association between global methylation and these phenotypes, our findings may offer novel insights into the molecular mechanisms linked to suicide. Future investigation may measure global methylation in association with suicidal ideation or behavior in larger samples.

Effects of exposure to chronic uncertainty and a sensitizing regimen of amphetamine injections on locomotion, decision-making, and dopamine receptors in rats.

Gambling disorder (GD) is a behavioral addiction that may be linked to alterations in dopamine (DA) systems. Gambling involves chronic exposure to uncertain reward, which can sensitize the activity of DA systems. Here we explored how combinations of Pavlovian and instrumental uncertainty impact DA sensitization and risky decision-making. Experiment 1: 40 rats underwent 66 uncertainty exposure (UE) sessions during which they responded for saccharin. Animal responding was reinforced according to a fixed or variable (FR/VR) ratio schedule that turned on a conditioned stimulus (CS; light), which predicted saccharin on 50% or 100% of trials. Animals responded under one of the four conditions: FR-CS100% (no uncertainty), VR-CS100%, FR-CS50%, and VR-CS50% (maximal uncertainty). DA sensitization was inferred from an enhanced locomotor response to d-amphetamine (d-AMPH; 0.5 mg/kg) challenge. The rat gambling task (rGT) was used to assess decision-making. Experiment 2: 24 rats received 5 weeks of sensitizing d-AMPH or saline doses, followed by locomotor activity and rGT testing. Experiment 3: Effects of UE and a sensitizing d-AMPH regimen on DA D1, D2, and D3 receptor binding were assessed in 44 rats using autoradiography. Compared to FR-CS100%, VR-CS100% and VR-CS50% rats displayed a greater locomotor response to d-AMPH, and VR-CS50% rats demonstrated riskier decision-making. Chronic d-AMPH-treated rats mirrored the effects of VR-CS50% groups on these two indices. Both VR-CS50% and d-AMPH-treated groups had increased striatal DA D2 receptor binding. These results suggest that chronic uncertainty exposure, similar to exposure to a sensitizing d-AMPH regimen, sensitized the function of DA systems and increased risky decision-making.

Endocannabinoid modulating drugs improve anxiety but not the expression of conditioned fear in a rodent model of post-traumatic stress disorder.

The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is a potential target for the treatment of symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Similar to clinical PTSD, approximately 25-30% of rats that undergo cued fear conditioning exhibit impaired extinction learning. In addition to extinction-resistant fear, these "weak extinction" (WE) rats show persistent anxiety-like behaviors. The goal of the present study was to test the hypothesis that behavioural differences between WE animals and those presenting normal extinction patterns (strong extinction; SE) could be mediated by the eCB system. Rats undergoing fear conditioning/extinction and fear recall sessions were initially segregated in weak and strong-extinction groups. Two weeks later, animals underwent a fear recall session followed by a novelty-suppressed feeding (NSF) test. In acute experiments, WE rats were injected with either the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor URB597 or the CB1 agonist WIN55,212-2 1 h prior to long-term recall and NSF testing. SE animals were injected with the inverse CB1 receptor agonist AM251. In chronic experiments, WE and SE rats were given daily injections of URB597 or AM251 between short and long-term recall sessions. We found that acute administration of WIN55,212-2 but not URB597 reduced anxiety-like behaviour in WE rats. In contrast, AM251 was anxiogenic in SE animals. Neither treatment was effective in altering freezing expression during fear recall. The chronic administration of AM251 to SE or URB597 to WE did not alter fear or anxiety-like behaviour or changed the expression of FAAH and CB1. Together, these results suggest that systemic manipulations of the eCB system may alter anxiety-like behaviour but not the behavioural expression of an extinction-resistant associative fear memory.

A Key Role for Prefrontocortical Small Conductance Calcium-Activated Potassium Channels in Stress Adaptation and Rapid Antidepressant Response.

The muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist scopolamine elicits rapid antidepressant activity, but its underlying mechanism is not fully understood. In a chronic stress model, a single low-dose administration of scopolamine reversed depressive-like reactivity. This antidepressant-like effect was mediated via a muscarinic M1 receptor-SKC pathway because it was mimicked by intra-medial prefrontal cortex (intra-mPFC) infusions of scopolamine, of the M1 antagonist pirenzepine or of the SKC antagonist apamin, but not by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant fluoxetine. Extracellular and whole-cell recordings revealed that scopolamine and ketamine attenuate the SKC-mediated action potential hyperpolarization current and rapidly enhance mPFC neuronal excitability within the therapeutically relevant time window. The SKC agonist 1-EBIO abrogated scopolamine-induced antidepressant activity at a dose that completely suppressed burst firing activity. Scopolamine also induced a slow-onset activation of raphe serotonergic neurons, which in turn was dependent on mPFC-induced neuroplasticity or excitatory input, since mPFC transection abolished this effect. These early behavioral and mPFC activational effects of scopolamine did not appear to depend on prefrontocortical brain-derived neurotrophic factor and serotonin-1A activity, classically linked to SSRIs, and suggest a novel mechanism associated with antidepressant response onset through SKC-mediated regulation of activity-dependent plasticity.

D3 dopamine receptors and a missense mutation of fatty acid amide hydrolase linked in mouse and men: implication for addiction.

The endocannabinoid and dopaminergic systems have independently been implicated in substance use disorder and obesity. We investigated a potential interaction between genetically inherited variation in fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH, C385A), which metabolizes the cannabis-like endocannabinoid anandamide, and dopaminergic system, measured by dopamine receptor levels and mRNA. Binding of the dopamine D3 preferring probe [C-11]-(+)-PHNO was measured with positron emission tomography (PET) in 79 human subjects genotyped for the FAAH C385A polymorphism (36/79 AC + AA). Autoradiography with [H-3]-(+)-PHNO and in situ hybridization with a D3-specific S-35 riboprobe were carried out in 30 knock-in mice with the FAAH C385A polymorphism (20/30 AC + AA). We found that the FAAH genetic variant C385A was associated with significantly higher (+)-PHNO binding in both humans and in knock-in mice, and this effect was restricted to D3 selective brain regions (limbic striatum, globus pallidus, and ventral pallidum (9-14%; p < 0.04) in humans and Islands of Calleja (28%; p = 0.036) in mice). In situ hybridization with a D3-specific S-35 riboprobe in FAAH knock-in C385A mice confirmed significantly increased D3 receptor mRNA across examined regions (7-44%; p < 0.02). The association of reduced FAAH function with higher dopamine D3 receptors in human and mouse brain provide a mechanistic link between two brain systems that have been implicated in addiction-risk. This may explain the greater vulnerability for addiction and obesity in individuals with C385A genetic variant and by extension, suggest that a D3 antagonism strategy in substance use disorders should consider FAAH C385A polymorphism.

Ethanol-induced changes in synaptic amino acid neurotransmitter levels in the nucleus accumbens of differentially sensitized mice.

RATIONALE: Ethanol-induced behavioural sensitization (EBS) does not occur uniformly in mice exposed to the sensitization paradigm. This suggests innate differential responses to ethanol (EtOH) in the reward circuitry of individual animals. OBJECTIVES: To better characterize the adaptive differences between low-sensitized (LS) and high-sensitized (HS) mice, we examined excitatory amino acid (EAA) and inhibitory amino acid (IAA) neurotransmitter levels in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) during EBS expression. METHODS: Male DBA/2J mice received five ethanol (EtOH) (2.2 g/kg) or saline injections, and locomotor activity (LMA) was assessed during EBS induction. EtOH mice were classified as LS or HS on the basis of final LMA scores. Following an EtOH challenge (1.8 g/kg) 2 weeks later, LMA was re-evaluated and in vivo microdialysis samples were collected from the NAc. RESULTS: Most differences in amino acid levels were observed within the first 20 min after EtOH challenge. LS mice exhibited similar glutamate levels compared with acutely treated (previously EtOH naïve) mice, and generally increased levels of the IAAs GABA, glycine, and taurine. By contrast, HS mice exhibited increased glutamate and attenuated levels of GABA, glycine, and taurine. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that the profile of amino acid neurotransmitters in the NAc of LS and HS mice significantly differs. Elucidating these adaptive differences contributes to our understanding of factors that confer susceptibility/resilience to alcohol use disorder.

In Vivo Brain Sampling Using a Microextraction Probe Reveals Metabolic Changes in Rodents after Deep Brain Stimulation.

Brain metabolomics is an emerging field that complements the more traditional approaches of neuroscience. However, typical brain metabolomics workflows require that animals be sacrificed and tend to involve tedious sample preparation steps. Microdialysis, the standard technique to study brain metabolites in vivo, is encumbered by significant limitations in the analysis of hydrophobic metabolites, which are prone to adsorption losses on microdialysis equipment. An alternative sampling method suitable for in vivo brain studies is solid-phase microextraction (SPME). In SPME, a small probe coated with a biocompatible polymer is employed to extract/enrich analytes from biological matrices. In this work, we report the use of SPME and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for untargeted in vivo analysis of rodent's brains after deep brain stimulation (DBS). First, metabolite changes occurring in brain hippocampi after application of 3 h of DBS to the animals' prefrontal cortex were monitored with the proposed approach. As SPME allows for nonlethal sampling, the same group of animals was sampled again after 8 days of daily DBS therapy. After acute DBS, we detected changes in a broad range of metabolites, including the amino acid citrulline, which may reflect changes in nitric oxide production, as well as various phospho- and glycosphingolipids. Measurements conducted after chronic DBS showed a decrease in hippocampal corticosterone, indicating that DBS may have a regulatory effect in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Our findings demonstrate the potential of in vivo SPME as a tool of scientific and clinical interest capable of revealing changes in a wide range of metabolites in brain tissue.

Rostrocaudal subregions of the ventral tegmental area are differentially impacted by chronic stress.

RATIONALE: The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is implicated in the pathophysiology of depression and addictive disorders and is subject to the detrimental effects of stress. Chronic stress may differentially alter the activity pattern of its different subregions along the rostrocaudal and dorsoventral axes, which may relate to the variable behavioral sensitivity to stress mediated by these subregions. OBJECTIVES: Here, chronic stress-exposed rats were tested for depressive-like reactivity. In situ hybridization for zif268 as a marker of neuronal activation was combined with in vivo single-unit recording of dopaminergic neurons to assess modifications in the activity of the rostral VTA (rVTA) and caudal VTA (cVTA). Changes in the expression of stress-responsive glucocorticoid receptors (GR) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were also assessed. RESULTS: Stress-induced anhedonia-like, hyper-anxious, and passive-like responding were associated with reductions in dopaminergic burst activity in the cVTA and an increase in local GABAergic activity, particularly in GABAA receptor sensitivity. On the other hand, stress increased single-spiking activity, burst activity, and zif268 mRNA levels in the rVTA, which were associated with increased glutamatergic tonus and enhanced GR and AMPA receptor (AMPAR) expression. rVTA and cVTA activity differentially correlated with sucrose preference and passivity measures. CONCLUSIONS: These data demonstrate that the rVTA and cVTA respond differently to stress and suggest that while cVTA activity may be related to passivity-like states, the activity of both subregions appears to be related to anhedonia and the processing of incentive value. These region-dependent abnormalities indicate the multi-modular composition of the VTA, which could provide multiple substrates for different symptom features.

High frequency stimulation of the anterior vermis modulates behavioural response to chronic stress: involvement of the prefrontal cortex and dorsal raphe?

Some evidence suggests that the cerebellum modulates affect via connectivities with mood-regulating corticolimbic structures, such as the prefrontal cortex and monoamine nuclei. In rats exposed to chronic unpredictable stress (CUS), we examined the neuro-behavioural effects of high frequency stimulation and surgical ablation/disconnection of the cerebellar vermis. CUS reduced sucrose preference, increased novelty-induced feeding suppression and passive coping. These depressive-like behaviours were associated with decreased cerebellar zif268 expression, indicating possible cerebellar involvement in stress pathology. These were paralleled by decreased vermal Purkinje simple and complex spiking activity and raphe serotonergic activity. Protracted (24-h) vermal stimulation reversed these behavioural deficits through serotonin-mediated mechanisms since this effect was abrogated by the serotonin-depleting agent pCPA. Vermal stimulation and disconnection lesion also enhanced serotonergic activity, but did not modify prefrontocortical pyramidal firing. This effect was likely mediated by 5-HT1A receptors (5-HT1AR). Indeed, acute vermal stimulation mimicked the effect of the 5-HT1AR agonist 8-OH-DPAT in inhibiting serotonergic activity, which was prevented by pre-treatment with the 5-HT1AR antagonist WAY100,635. These results demonstrate vermal involvement in depressive-type behaviour via its modulatory action on serotonergic neurons. They further suggest that vermal and mPFC stimulation may bestow therapeutic benefits via parallel pathways.

Deep brain stimulation and fluoxetine exert different long-term changes in the serotonergic system.

Both selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) deep brain stimulation (DBS) modulate serotonergic activity. We compared the acute (1 day) and long-term (12 days) effects of vmPFC stimulation and fluoxetine on serotonin (5-HT) release and receptor expression in rats. Samples to measure serotonin levels were collected from the hippocampus using microdialysis. Serotonin transporter (SERT), 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B mRNA were measured using in situ hybridization. [3H]8-OH-DPAT and [125I]cyanopindolol autoradiography were used to measure 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B binding. Our results show that after fluoxetine injections serotonin levels were approximately 150% higher than at baseline. Twelve days later, pre-injection 5-HT extracellular concentration was substantially higher than on day 1. In contrast, serotonin levels following DBS were only 50% higher than at baseline. While pre-stimulation 5-HT on day 12 was significantly higher than on treatment day 1, no stimulation-induced 5-HT peak was recorded. SERT expression in the dorsal raphe was increased after acute fluoxetine and decreased following a single day of DBS. Neither fluoxetine nor DBS administered acutely substantially changed 5-HT1A or 5-HT1B binding. Chronic fluoxetine treatment, however, was associated with a decrease in [3H]8-OH-DPAT prefrontal cortex and hippocampus expression. In contrast, chronic DBS induced a significant increase in [125I]cyanopindolol binding in the prefrontal cortex, globus pallidus, substantia nigra and raphe nuclei. mRNA expression of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B in raphe nuclei was not altered by either treatment. These results suggest that fluoxetine and DBS modulate activity of the serotonergic system but likely exert their effects through different mechanisms.

Antidepressant effects of focused ultrasound induced blood-brain-barrier opening.

In many cases, hippocampal neurogenesis appears to be a hallmark of antidepressant treatments. One novel technique for inducing this type of neurogenesis is using focused ultrasound waves, in conjunction with circulating microbubbles, to open the blood-brain-barrier. The present experiment aimed to test whether this technique has antidepressant effects in a rodent model. Rats were subjected to 1, 2 or 3 weekly treatments of magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound in order to open the blood-brain-barrier in the hippocampal region. Before and after treatments, animals went through modified forced swim tests. 1 week after the final treatment, animals that received 2 weekly treatments showed antidepressant-like effects on behavioural measures in comparison to untreated controls. This was not the case for animals that received 1 or 3 weekly treatments. Effects had disappeared by 5 weeks following the first ultrasound treatment. These results suggest that focused ultrasound may be used for inducing short-term antidepressant effects.

Prefrontal Cortex Deep Brain Stimulation Improves Fear and Anxiety-Like Behavior and Reduces Basolateral Amygdala Activity in a Preclinical Model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is being investigated for a number of psychiatric indications, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Preclinical studies continue to be a cornerstone for the development of new DBS applications. We investigate whether DBS delivered to the infralimbic cortex (IL), a region involved in mechanisms of stress resiliency, may counter behavioral abnormalities in rats that present persistent extinction deficits and long-term anxiety after exposure to fear conditioning. Rats undergoing fear conditioning/extinction were segregated into weak and strong extinction groups (WE >70% or SE <30% of freezing during extinction). Following 2 weeks of DBS, animals were exposed to novel recall sessions and tested in the open field, novelty-suppressed feeding, and elevated plus maze. zif268 expression was measured in structures involved in mechanisms of fear and stress. In vivo electrophysiology was used to record activity from the basolateral amygdala (BLA). We found that DBS improved extinction deficits and anxiety-like behavior in WE animals, having no significant effects in SE rats. No major differences in absolute zif268 levels were recorded across groups. However, correlation between zif268 expression in the IL and BLA was disrupted in WE animals, a deficit that was countered by DBS treatment. Electrophysiology experiments have shown that DBS reduced BLA firing of both putative principal cells and interneurons in WE rats, with no significant differences being detected between SE and SE DBS animals. In summary, IL DBS mitigated fear, partially improved anxiety-like behavior, reversed neurocircuitry abnormalities, and reduced BLA cell firing in a preclinical model of PTSD.

Deep brain stimulation induces antidepressant-like effects in serotonin transporter knockout mice.

BACKGROUND: Some of the antidepressant-like effects of ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) deep brain stimulation (DBS) in rodents have been attributed to the modulation of prefrontal-raphe pathways. This is largely different from selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase serotonin (5-HT) levels by inhibiting the serotonin transporter (SERT). SSRIs have limited efficacy when given to SERT knockout (KO) mice, or patients with mutations in the serotonin transporter promoter gene (5-HTTLPR). HYPOTHESIS: vmPFC DBS will induce antidepressant-like effects and serotonin release in SERT KOs. RESULTS: DBS-treated wild-type and SERT KO mice had a significant 22-26% decrease in immobility in the forced swim test. DBS delivered to either group was associated with 33-55% increase in 5-HT levels. CONCLUSIONS: DBS induced a significant antidepressant-like effect in KO mice. This suggests that it may be reasonable to consider DBS in states where SERT is not fully operational.

A role for nucleus accumbens glutamate in the expression but not the induction of behavioural sensitization to ethanol.

Mechanisms underlying differential sensitivity to behavioural sensitization to ethanol (EtOH) remain poorly understood, although accumulating evidence suggests a role for glutamatergic processes in the ventral striatum. Efforts to address this issue can benefit from the well-documented fact that in any given cohort, some of the mice (High sensitized; HS) show robust sensitization, while others (Low sensitized; LS) show little, if any, sensitization. Here, we examined whether this variability might be differentially associated with nucleus accumbens (NAc) glutamate processes. Male DBA mice received 5 EtOH (2.2g/kg) or saline injections twice a week and were challenged with EtOH (1.8g/kg) 2 weeks after injection 5. When an EtOH challenge was administered 2 weeks following the induction of sensitization, HS, but not LS, mice showed a robust increase in glutamate levels (67%, P<0.01) as measured by in vivo microdialysis. In a separate cohort, the mGlu2/3 agonist LY354740 (10mg/kg), given prior to the EtOH challenge, abolished the expression of sensitization. To ascertain whether enhanced release could also be observed during the induction of sensitization, glutamate levels were measured after the 1st and 5th EtOH injection and were found to be unchanged in HS mice, although briefly elevated in LS mice at injection 5. To further assess possible glutamate involvement during the induction of sensitization, sensitizing EtOH injections were co-administered with NMDAR antagonists. At the doses used, MK-801 (0.25mg/kg) and CGS 19755 (10mg/kg) blocked the expression of sensitization, but did not significantly interfere with the development of EtOH sensitization. Within the limitations of the present design, the results suggest an important role for EtOH-induced glutamate release in the NAc when sensitization is well established, but not necessarily during the development of sensitization.

Evaluation of a novel radiotracer for positron emission tomography imaging of reactive oxygen species in the central nervous system.

INTRODUCTION: Few, if any, radiotracers are available for the in vivo imaging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the central nervous system. ROS play a critical role in normal cell processes such as signaling and homeostasis but overproduction of ROS is implicated in several disorders. We describe here the radiosynthesis and initial ex vivo and in vivo evaluation of [11C]hydromethidine ([11C]HM) as a radiotracer to image ROS using positron emission tomography (PET). METHODS: [11C]HM and its deuterated isotopologue [11C](4) were produced using [11C]methyl triflate in a one-pot, two-step reaction and purified by high performance liquid chromatography. Ex vivo biodistribution studies were performed after tail vein injections of both radiotracers. To demonstrate sensitivity of uptake to ROS, [11C]HM was administered to rats treated systemically with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In addition, ex vivo autoradiography and in vivo PET imaging were performed using [11C]HM on rats which had been microinjected with sodium nitroprusside (SNP) to induce ROS. RESULTS: [11C]HM and [11C](4) radiosyntheses were reliable and produced the radiotracers at high specific activities and radiochemical purities. Both radiotracers demonstrated good brain uptake and fast washout of radioactivity, but [11C](4) washout was faster. Pretreatment with LPS resulted in a significant increase in brain retention of radioactivity. Ex vivo autoradiography and PET imaging of rats unilaterally treated with microinjections of SNP demonstrated increased retention of radioactivity in the treated side of the brain. CONCLUSIONS: [11C]HM has the attributes of a radiotracer for PET imaging of ROS in the brain including good brain penetration and increased retention of radioactivity in animal models of oxidative stress.