Occupational Health Risks and Hazards Among the Fisherfolk in Kampi Samaki, Lake Baringo, Kenya.

Globally, almost 2.78 million deaths that occur annually are attributed to work-related health risks. Worldwide and, especially, in developing countries, about 20% to 50% of the workers are exposed to health risks. Fishing is an ancient occupation, and like many others, it is characterized by numerous health risks and hazards. This study sought to understand the exposure of fisherfolk to human health risks, through fish handling and processing in Lake Baringo, Kenya. The study adopted a cross-sectional social survey design. A systematic random sampling technique was used to select respondents for this study. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to the respondents to collect data on risks involved during the handling and processing of fish. Key informant interviews and observation checklists were also used to collect more information. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze data. Inferential statistics included Pearson χ2 test, which was used to test the association of various factors on the encounter with occupational health risks. The level of significance was tested at α = 0.05. The study findings reveal the fisherfolk-encountered risks such as cuts, eye irritability, sunburns, skin burn, cold, falls, and musculoskeletal injuries during their work. The results showed that only 12% of the fisherfolk use personal protective equipments (PPEs) at work. Pearson χ2 test analysis showed there was an association between gender and gender roles (χ2 = 39.517, P < .05). In addition, an association was revealed between occupational health risks and gender (χ2 = 16.283, P < .05). There was also an association between occupational hazards and gender (χ2 = 21.352, P < .05). However, there was no association revealed between occupational health risk and marital status (χ2 = 1.305, P > .05) and PPEs (χ2 = 1.089, P > .05). Furthermore, results indicate that 61% of the fisherfolk who suffered from occupational health risks missed work. The study concludes that all the fisherfolk at Kampi Samaki are exposed to various health risks while working, which is thus likely to affect their health. We recommend public health campaigns to sensitize fisherfolk on the associated risks in fish handling and processing. There is also a need for health campaigns for the fisherfolk to appreciate the need for First Aid Kits during the fishing operations.

Open Defecation Practices in Lodwar, Kenya: A Mixed-Methods Research.

BACKGROUND: As of the year 2014, about 2.5 billion people globally lacked access to improved sanitation. The situation is even worse in the sub-Saharan African countries including Kenya. The practice of open defecation (OD) peaks beyond 72% of the population in Turkana County, Kenya, despite various interventions to end it. METHODS: This article reports on both qualitative and quantitative aspects of a cross-sectional study. A partially mixed sequential dominant (quantitative) status was used to understand various socioeconomic factors associated with OD practice in Lodwar's human settlements, Turkana County. Simple random sampling technique was chosen to select participants for this study with the sample drawn from various administrative units of Lodwar. Standardized questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews were used to collect data. RESULTS: The quantitative findings revealed that culture was the leading factor as to why people practiced OD with a frequency of 44%. The findings further revealed that poverty was the major influencing factor for latrine ownership among the households (frequency 27%). Pearson χ2 tests revealed that there was a significant association between latrine presence and education level of the household head (χ2 = 107.317; P < .05), latrine sharing (χ2 = 403; P < .05), and occupation of the household head (χ2 = 74.51; P < .05). The quantitative findings showed that culture was by far the most common factor that contributed to the OD practice with a theme intensity of 31.1%. Further analyses identified 5 major cultural aspects that were associated with OD practice. This included sexual immorality, OD as a common habit, nomadic pastoralism, bride's dignity and mixing of feces. Open defecation as a common habit among the respondents was the most cited factor that contributed to its rampant practice (theme intensity 31.3%) followed closely by nomadic pastoralism kind of life among the residents that limit latrine construction (theme intensity 28.1%). CONCLUSIONS: In addition to cultural aspects, high poverty levels influence latrine adoption and consequently OD practices. Future sanitation interventions addressing OD should assess and factor in these cultural aspects in such communities to come up with appropriate eradication measures which have otherwise been difficult to solve through poverty eradication and sanitation campaigns that have been in existence.

Microbial Quality of Drinking Water and Prevalence of Water-Related Diseases in Marigat Urban Centre, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Accessibility to potable water is a fundamental right for dignity and well-being. Despite this observation, more than 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water. This is particularly true in the Sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia regions. OBJECTIVE: The main aim of this study was to assess microbial quality of drinking water and prevalence of water-related diseases in Marigat town, Baringo County, Kenya. METHODS: Samples of drinking water were collected from water sources (boreholes, rivers, and wells) and at the point of use (households) and analyzed for Escherichia coli and total coliform (TC) bacteria using the most probable number method. In situ measurements of pH and temperature were performed using a Wagtech International portable meter. Clinical health records from the local health centers were also reviewed to assess the prevalence rates of some of the water-related diseases. RESULTS: There were significant differences among water sources during dry season for E coli (F2,21 = 3.629, P < .05) and TC (F2,21 = 4.041, P < .05). Similar observations were made during wet season for E coli (F2,21 = 4.090, P < .05) and TC (F2,21 = 1.893, P < .05). Furthermore, there were significant interactions between the water sources and season for E coli (F2,42 = 7.66, P < .01) and TC (F2,42 = 5.494, P < .05). Drinking water in large plastic storage containers (herein referred to as sky-plast) had the highest E coli and TC concentrations. Typhoid was the most prevalent water-related disease during the dry season (10%), whereas diarrhea (3%) was the most prevalent during the wet season. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: All drinking water at abstraction and point of use for Marigat residents are microbiologically contaminated and therefore pose serious health risks to consumers of such water. Thus, there is need for public health awareness campaigns on household water management to curb incidences of water-related diseases. Public health practitioners at county and national levels need to ensure that households have adequate access to potable water and improved sanitation.

Open Defaecation and Its Effects on the Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water Sources in Isiolo County, Kenya.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: The post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals for sanitation call for universal access to adequate and equitable sanitation and an end to open defaecation by 2030. In Isiolo County, a semi-arid region lying in the northern part of Kenya, poor sanitation and water shortage remain a major problem facing the rural communities. OBJECTIVE: The overall aim of the study was to assess the relationship between sanitation practices and the bacteriological quality of drinking water sources. The study also assessed the risk factors contributing to open defaecation in the rural environments of the study area. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of 150 households was conducted to assess the faecal disposal practices in open defaecation free (ODF) and open defaecation not free (ODNF) areas. Sanitary surveys and bacteriological analyses were conducted for selected community water sources to identify faecal pollution sources, contamination pathways, and contributory factors. Analysis of data was performed using SPSS (descriptive and inferential statistics at α = .05 level of significance). RESULTS: Open defaecation habit was reported in 51% of the study households in ODNF villages and in 17% households in ODF villages. Higher mean colony counts were recorded for water samples from ODNF areas 2.0, 7.8, 5.3, and 7.0 (×103) colony-forming units (CFUs)/100 mL compared with those of ODF 1.8, 6.4, 3.5, and 6.1 (×103) areas for Escherichia coli, faecal streptococci, Salmonella typhi, and total coliform, respectively. Correlation tests revealed a significant relationship between sanitary surveys and contamination of water sources (P = .002). CONCLUSIONS: The water sources exhibited high levels of contamination with microbial pathogens attributed to poor sanitation. Practising safe faecal disposal in particular is recommended as this will considerably reverse the situation and thus lead to improved human health.

Can Sanitary Surveys Replace Water Quality Testing? Evidence from Kisii, Kenya.

Information about the quality of rural drinking water sources can be used to manage their safety and mitigate risks to health. Sanitary surveys, which are observational checklists to assess hazards present at water sources, are simpler to conduct than microbial tests. We assessed whether sanitary survey results were associated with measured indicator bacteria levels in rural drinking water sources in Kisii Central, Kenya. Overall, thermotolerant coliform (TTC) levels were high: all of the samples from the 20 tested dug wells, almost all (95%) of the samples from the 25 tested springs, and 61% of the samples from the 16 tested rainwater harvesting systems were contaminated with TTC. There were no significant associations between TTC levels and overall sanitary survey scores or their individual components. Contamination by TTC was associated with source type (dug wells and springs were more contaminated than rainwater systems). While sanitary surveys cannot be substituted for microbial water quality results in this context, they could be used to identify potential hazards and contribute to a comprehensive risk management approach.

Effects of acid-volatile sulfide on metal bioavailability and toxicity to midge (Chironomus tentans) larvae in black shale sediments.

Metal bioavailability and toxicity to aquatic organisms are greatly affected by variables such as pH, hardness, organic matter, and sediment acid-volatile sulfide (AVS). Sediment AVS, which reduces metal bioavailability and toxicity by binding and immobilizing metals as insoluble sulfides, has been studied intensely in recent years. Few studies, however, have determined the spatial variability of AVS and its interaction with simultaneously extracted metals (SEM) in sediments containing elevated concentrations of metals resulting from natural geochemical processes, such as weathering of black shales. We collected four sediment samples from each of four headwater bedrock streams in northcentral Arkansa (USA; three black shale-draining streams and one limestone-draining stream). We conducted 10-d acute whole-sediment toxicity tests using the midge Chironomus tentans and performed analyses for AVS, total metals, SEMs, and organic carbon. Most of the sediments from shale-draining streams had similar total metal and SEM concentrations but considerable differences in organic carbon and AVS. Zinc was the leading contributor to the SEM molar sum, averaging between 68 and 74%, whereas lead and cadmium contributed less than 3%. The AVS concentration was very low in all but two samples from one of the shale streams, and the sum of the SEM concentrations was in molar excess of AVS for all shale stream sediments. No significant differences in mean AVS concentrations between sediments collected from shale-draining or limestone-draining sites were noted (p > 0.05). Midge survival and growth in black shale-derived sediments were significantly less (p < 0.001) than that of limestone-derived sediments. On the whole, either SEM alone or SEM-AVS explained the total variation in midge survival and growth about equally well. However, survival and growth were significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the two sediment samples that contained measurable AVS compared with the two sediments from the same stream that contained negligible AVS.