The Total Denervation of the Ischemic Kidney Induces Differential Responses in Sodium Transporters' Expression in the Contralateral Kidney in Goldblatt Rats.

The Goldblatt model of hypertension (2K-1C) in rats is characterized by renal sympathetic nerve activity (rSNA). We investigated the effects of unilateral renal denervation of the clipped kidney (DNX) on sodium transporters of the unclipped kidneys and the cardiovascular, autonomic, and renal functions in 2K-1C and control (CTR) rats. The mean arterial pressure (MAP) and rSNA were evaluated in experimental groups. Kidney function and NHE3, NCC, ENaCß, and ENaCγ protein expressions were assessed. The glomerular filtration rate (GRF) and renal plasma flow were not changed by DNX, but the urinary (CTR: 0.0042 ± 0.001; 2K-1C: 0.014 ± 0.003; DNX: 0.005 ± 0.0013 mL/min/g renal tissue) and filtration fractions (CTR: 0.29 ± 0.02; 2K-1C: 0.51 ± 0.06; DNX: 0.28 ± 0.04 mL/min/g renal tissue) were normalized. The Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE3) was reduced in 2K-1C, and DNX normalized NHE3 (CTR: 100 ± 6; 2K-1C: 44 ± 14, DNX: 84 ± 13%). Conversely, the Na+/Cl- cotransporter (NCC) was increased in 2K-1C and was reduced by DNX (CTR: 94 ± 6; 2K-1C: 144 ± 8; DNX: 60 ± 15%). In conclusion, DNX in Goldblatt rats reduced blood pressure and proteinuria independently of GRF with a distinct regulation of NHE3 and NCC in unclipped kidneys.

Treatment with Mesenchymal Stem Cells Improves Renovascular Hypertension and Preserves the Ability of the Contralateral Kidney to Excrete Sodium.

BACKGROUND: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) improve renal function and renovascular hypertension in the 2-kidney 1-clip model (2K-1C). While MSC play an immunomodulatory role, induce neoangiogenesis, and reduce fibrosis, they do not correct sodium loss by the contra-lateral kidney. OBJECTIVES: We investigated the tubular function of both stenotic and contralateral kidneys and the effect of MSC treatment by evaluating diuresis, natriuresis, and the expression of the main water and sodium transporters. METHOD: Adult Wistar rats were allocated into four groups: control (CT), CT+MSC, 2K-1C, and 2K-1C+MSC. MSC (2 × 105) were infused through the tail vein 3 and 5 weeks after clipping. Systolic blood pressure (SBP) was monitored weekly by plethysmography. Six weeks after clipping, 24-hour urine and blood samples were collected for biochemical analysis. Gene expression of the Na/H exchanger-3, epithelial sodium channel, Na/K-ATPase, Na/K/2Cl cotransporter, and aquaporins 1 and 2 (AQP1 and AQP2) were analyzed by RT-PCR. Intrarenal distribution of AQP1 and AQP2 was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: In hypertensive 2K-1C animals, MSC prevented additional increases in BP. AQP1, but not AQP2, was suppressed in the contralateral kidney, resulting in significant increase in urinary flow rate and sodium excretion. Gene expressions of sodium transporters were similar in both kidneys, suggesting that the high perfusing pressure in the contralateral kidney was responsible for increased natriuresis. Contralateral hypertensive kidney showed signs of renal deterioration with lower GFR in spite of normal RPF levels. CONCLUSIONS: MSC treatment improved renal function and enhanced the ability of the contralateral kidney to excrete sodium through a tubular independent mechanism contributing to reduce SBP.

Mesenchymal stem cells and chronic renal artery stenosis.

Renal artery stenosis is the main cause of renovascular hypertension and results in ischemic nephropathy characterized by inflammation, oxidative stress, microvascular loss, and fibrosis with consequent functional failure. Considering the limited number of strategies that effectively control renovascular hypertension and restore renal function, we propose that cell therapy may be a promising option based on the regenerative and immunosuppressive properties of stem cells. This review addresses the effects of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) in an experimental animal model of renovascular hypertension known as 2 kidney-1 clip (2K-1C). Significant benefits of MSC treatment have been observed on blood pressure and renal structure of the stenotic kidney. The mechanisms involved are discussed.

Sympathetic overactivity occurs before hypertension in the two-kidney, one-clip model.

Our knowledge of mechanisms responsible for both the development and the maintenance of hypertension remains incomplete in the Goldblatt (two-kidney, one-clip; 2K1C) model. We tested the hypothesis that elevated sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) occurs before the onset of hypertension in 2K1C rats, considering the time course of the increase in SNA in relationship to the onset of the hypertension. We used a decorticated in situ working heart-brainstem preparation of three groups of male Wistar rats, namely sham-operated animals (SHAM, n = 7) and animals 3 weeks post-2K1C, of which some were hypertensive (2K1C-H, n = 6) and others normotensive (2K1C-N, n = 9), as determined in vivo a priori. Perfusion pressure was higher in both 2K1C groups (2K1C-H, 76 ± 1 mmHg; 2K1C-N, 74 ± 3 mmHg; versus SHAM, 60 ± 2 mmHg, P < 0.05). The SNA was significantly elevated in both 2K1C groups (2K1C-H, 47.7 ± 6.1 µV; 2K1C-N, 32.8 ± 2.8 µV; versus SHAM, 20.5 ± 2.5 µV, P < 0.05) owing to its increased respiratory modulation; the chemoreflex was augmented and baroreflex depressed. Precollicular transection reduced SNA in all groups (2K1C-H, -32.5 ± 7.5%; 2K1C-NH, -48 ± 6.9%; versus SHAM, -13.2 ± 1%, P < 0.05). Subsequent medullary spinal cord transection abolished SNA in both SHAM and 2K1C-N groups, but decreased it by only 57 ± 5.5% in 2K1C-H preparations. Thus, SNA is raised before the onset of hypertension, by the third week after renal artery clipping, and this originates, in part, from its enhanced respiratory modulation. Spinal circuits contribute to the elevation of SNA in the 2K1C model, but only after hypertension has developed.

Renal nerve stimulation leads to the activation of the Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 3 via angiotensin II type I receptor.

Renal nerve stimulation at a low frequency (below 2 Hz) causes water and sodium reabsorption via α1-adrenoreceptor tubular activation, a process independent of changes in systemic blood pressure, renal blood flow, or glomerular filtration rate. However, the underlying mechanism of the reabsorption of sodium is not fully understood. Since the sympathetic nervous system and intrarenal ANG II appear to act synergistically to mediate the process of sodium reabsorption, we hypothesized that low-frequency acute electrical stimulation of the renal nerve (ESRN) activates NHE3-mediated sodium reabsorption via ANG II AT1 receptor activation in Wistar rats. We found that ESRN significantly increased urinary angiotensinogen excretion and renal cortical ANG II content, but not the circulating angiotensinogen levels, and also decreased urinary flow and pH and sodium excretion via mechanisms independent of alterations in creatinine clearance. Urinary cAMP excretion was reduced, as was renal cortical PKA activity. ESRN significantly increased NHE3 activity and abundance in the apical microvillar domain of the proximal tubule, decreased the ratio of phosphorylated NHE3 at serine 552/total NHE3, but did not alter total cortical NHE3 abundance. All responses mediated by ESRN were completely abolished by a losartan-mediated AT1 receptor blockade. Taken together, our results demonstrate that higher NHE3-mediated proximal tubular sodium reabsorption induced by ESRN occurs via intrarenal renin angiotensin system activation and triggering of the AT1 receptor/inhibitory G-protein signaling pathway, which leads to inhibition of cAMP formation and reduction of PKA activity.

Effects of mesenchymal stem cells in renovascular hypertension.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the topic of this review? The major topic of this review addresses the effects of mesenchymal stem cell treatment in renovascular hypertension. What advances does it highlight? This therapy may be a promising strategy to treat renovascular hypertension and its renal consequences in the near future. Renovascular hypertension induced by the two-kidney, one-clip technique is a renin-angiotensin system-dependent model that leads to renal vascular rarefaction, fibrosis and renal failure. Treatment of renovascular hypertension remains a challenge, and thus, new therapies are needed. In this report, we discuss the beneficial effects of mesenchymal stem cells on the reconstruction of the renal parenchyma of the stenotic kidney to improve vascular rarefaction and fibrosis. Mesenchymal stem cell therapy prevented the progressive increase in systolic arterial pressure, reduced sympathetic hyperactivity, improved renal morphology, induced neovascularization and reduced fibrosis in stenotic kidneys. Although this therapy may be a promising strategy to treat renovascular hypertension and its renal consequences, further studies are necessary to improve the efficiency of mesenchymal stem cells.

Revealing the role of the autonomic nervous system in the development and maintenance of Goldblatt hypertension in rats.

Despite extensive use of the renovascular/Goldblatt model of hypertension-2K-1C, and the use of renal denervation to treat drug resistant hypertensive patients, autonomic mechanisms that underpin the maintenance of this hypertension are important yet remain unclear. Our aim was to analyse cardiovascular autonomic function by power spectral density analysis of both arterial pressure and pulse interval measured continuously by radio telemetry for 6weeks after renal artery clipping. Mean arterial pressure increased from 106±5 to 185±2mmHg during 5weeks post clipping when it stabilized. A tachycardia developed during the 4th week, which plateaued between weeks 5 and 6. The gain of the cardiac vagal baroreflex decreased immediately after clipping and continued to do so until the 5th week when it plateaued (from -2.4±0.09 to -0.8±0.04bpm/mmHg; P<0.05). A similar time course of changes in the high frequency power spectral density of the pulse interval was observed (decrease from 13.4±0.6 to 8.3±0.01ms(2); P<0.05). There was an increase in both the very low frequency and low frequency components of systolic blood pressure that occurred 3 and 4weeks after clipping, respectively. Thus, we show for the first time the temporal profile of autonomic mechanisms underpinning the initiation, development and maintenance of renovascular hypertension including: an immediate depression of cardiac baroreflex gain followed by a delayed cardiac sympathetic predominance; elevated sympathetic vasomotor drive occurring after the initiation of the hypertension but coinciding during its mid-development and maintenance.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) prevented the progression of renovascular hypertension, improved renal function and architecture.

Renovascular hypertension induced by 2 Kidney-1 Clip (2K-1C) is a renin-angiotensin-system (RAS)-dependent model, leading to renal vascular rarefaction and renal failure. RAS inhibitors are not able to reduce arterial pressure (AP) and/or preserve the renal function, and thus, alternative therapies are needed. Three weeks after left renal artery occlusion, fluorescently tagged mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) (2×10(5) cells/animal) were injected weekly into the tail vein in 2K-1C hypertensive rats. Flow cytometry showed labeled MSC in the cortex and medulla of the clipped kidney. MSC prevented a further increase in the AP, significantly reduced proteinuria and decreased sympathetic hyperactivity in 2K-1C rats. Renal function parameters were unchanged, except for an increase in urinary volume observed in 2K-1C rats, which was not corrected by MSC. The treatment improved the morphology and decreased the fibrotic areas in the clipped kidney and also significantly reduced renal vascular rarefaction typical of 2K-1C model. Expression levels of IL-1ß, TNF-α angiotensinogen, ACE, and Ang II receptor AT1 were elevated, whereas AT2 levels were decreased in the medulla of the clipped kidney. MSC normalized these expression levels. In conclusion, MSC therapy in the 2K-1C model (i) prevented the progressive increase of AP, (ii) improved renal morphology and microvascular rarefaction, (iii) reduced fibrosis, proteinuria and inflammatory cytokines, (iv) suppressed the intrarenal RAS, iv) decreased sympathetic hyperactivity in anesthetized animals and v) MSC were detected at the CNS suggesting that the cells crossed the blood-brain barrier. This therapy may be a promising strategy to treat renovascular hypertension and its renal consequences in the near future.

Losartan reduces oxidative stress within the rostral ventrolateral medulla of rats with renovascular hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies showed that the microinjection of antioxidants or the overexpression of superoxide dismutase within the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) reduces hypertension and sympathoexcitation in the 2-kidney, 1-clip (2K-1C) model. In this study, we hypothesized that angiotensin II (ANG II) type 1 receptor (AT1R) is involved in the oxidative stress within the RVLM and contributes to cardiovascular dysfunction in renovascular hypertension. METHODS: Losartan (30mg/kg/day, oral gavage) was administered for 7 consecutive days by week 5 after implantation of the clip (gap width = 0.2mm). Mean arterial pressure, baroreflex, and renal sympathetic nerve activity (rSNA) were evaluated. Superoxide production was evaluated by dihydroethidium (DHE) staining within the RVLM and within a control area. Systemic oxidative stress was characterized by measurement of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and total glutathione (tGSH) in the blood. RESULTS: AT1R blockade significantly (P < 0.05) reduced hypertension by approximately 20% (n = 11) and sympathoexcitation to the kidneys by approximately 41% (n = 6) in the 2K-1C rats. Losartan treatment increased the baroreflex sensitivity of rSNA to pressor (67%) and depressor (140%) stimuli in the 2K-1C rats. AT1R blockade caused a significant (66%) reduction in DHE staining within the RVLM but not within the control area, reduced plasma TBARS (from 1.6±0.1 to 1.0±0.1 nmol/ml), and increased tGSH (from 3.4±0.4 to 5.2±0.3 µmol/g Hb) in the 2K-1C group only. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that the beneficial effects of ANG II blockade in renovascular hypertension are partly due to preferential reduction of oxidative stress in the RVLM.

Upregulation of junctional adhesion molecule-A is a putative prognostic marker of hypertension.

AIMS: Establishing biochemical markers of pre-hypertension and early hypertension could help earlier diagnostics and therapeutic intervention. We assess dynamics of junctional adhesion molecule-A (JAM-A) expression in rat models of hypertension and test whether JAM-A expression could be driven by angiotensin (ANG) II and whether JAM-A contributes to the progression of hypertension. We also compare JAM-A expression in normo- and hypertensive humans. METHODS AND RESULTS: In pre-hypertensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs), JAM-A protein was overexpressed in the brainstem microvasculature, lung, liver, kidney, spleen, and heart. JAM-A upregulation at early and late stages was even greater in the stroke-prone SHR. However, JAM-A was not upregulated in leucocytes and platelets of SHRs. In Goldblatt 2K-1C hypertensive rats, JAM-A expression was augmented before any increase in blood pressure, and similarly JAM-A upregulation preceded hypertension caused by peripheral and central ANG II infusions. In SHRs, ANG II type 1 (AT(1)) receptor antagonism reduced JAM-A expression, but the vasodilator hydralazine did not. Body-wide downregulation of JAM-A with Vivo-morpholinos in juvenile SHRs delayed the progression of hypertension. In the human saphenous vein, JAM-A mRNA was elevated in hypertensive patients with untreated hypertension compared with normotensive patients but reduced in patients treated with renin-angiotensin system antagonists. CONCLUSION: Body-wide upregulation of JAM-A in genetic and induced models of hypertension in the rat precedes the stable elevation of arterial pressure. JAM-A upregulation may be triggered by AT(1) receptor-mediated signalling. An association of JAM-A with hypertension and sensitivity to blockers of ANG II signalling were also evident in humans. We suggest a prognostic and possibly a pathogenic role of JAM-A in arterial hypertension.

Role of the rostral ventrolateral medulla in the arterial hypertension in chronic renal failure.

Sympathetic activation in chronic renal failure (CRF) is a major mechanism leading to the progression of renal disease and hypertension. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that in CRF increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the RVLM mediated by enhanced circulating Angiotensin II (Ang II) is an important mechanism leading to hypertension in CRF. In CRF rats we found an increase in the abundance of p47(phox) and gp91(phox) mRNA within the RVLM associated with a reduction of Ang II type 1 receptors (AT(1)) mRNA in the brainstem compared to controls (C). Tempol but not candesartan into the RVLM decreased MAP in CRF but not in C rats. GABA into the RVLM decreased MAP in CRF (63 ± 8 mmHg) more intensely than in C (33 ± 3 mmHg). The results suggest that increased oxidative stress within the RVLM has an important participation to maintain hypertension in CRF rats apparently independently of AT(1) Ang II receptors.

The role of oxidative stress in renovascular hypertension.

1. There is mounting evidence that increased oxidative stress and sympathetic nerve activity play important roles in renovascular hypertension. In the present review, we focus on the importance of oxidative stress in two distinct populations of neurons involved with cardiovascular regulation: those of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and those of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) in the maintenance of sympathoexcitation and hypertension in two kidney-one clip (2K1C) hypertensive rats. Furthermore, the role of oxidative stress in the clipped kidney is also discussed. 2. In the studies reviewed in this article, it was found that hypertension and renal sympathoexcitation in 2K1C rats were associated with an increase in Angiotensin II type one receptor (AT(1) ) expression and in oxidative markers within the RVLM, PVN and in the clipped kidneys of 2K1C rats. Furthermore, acute or chronic anti-oxidant treatment decreased blood pressure and sympathetic activity, and improved the baroreflex control of heart rate and renal sympathetic nerve activity in 2K1C rats. Tempol or vitamin C administration in the RVLM, PVN or systemically all reduced blood pressure and renal sympathetic activity. Cardiovascular improvement in response to chronic anti-oxidant treatment was associated with a downregulation of AT(1) receptors, as well as oxidative markers in the central nuclei and clipped kidney. 3. The data discussed in the present review support the idea that an increase in oxidative stress within the RVLM, PVN and in the ischaemic kidney plays a major role in the maintenance of sympathoexcitation and hypertension in 2K1C rats.

Kidney-induced hypertension depends on superoxide signaling in the rostral ventrolateral medulla.

Reactive oxygen species in peripheral cardiovascular tissues are implicated in the pathogenesis of 2 kidney-1 clip hypertension. We recently identified an imbalance between reactive oxygen species generation and oxidant scavenging in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) of 2 kidney-1 clip in rats. We tested whether enhanced superoxide signaling in RVLM of 2 kidney-1 clip rats contributes to the chronic hypertension via sympathetic activation in conscious rats. We enhanced superoxide scavenging in RVLM by overexpressing cytoplasmically targeted superoxide dismutase using an adenoviral vector (Ad-CMV-CuZnSOD) in Wistar rats (male, 150 to 180 g) in which the left renal artery was occluded partially 3 weeks earlier. Hypertension was documented using radiotelemetry recording of arterial pressure in conscious rats for 6 weeks. Renovascular hypertension elevated both serine phosphorylation of p47phox subunit of NADPH and superoxide levels in RVLM. The elevated superoxide levels were normalized by expression of CuZnSOD in RVLM. Moreover, the hypertension produced in the 2 kidney-1 clip rats was reversed 1 week after viral-mediated expression of CuZnSOD. This antihypertensive effect was maintained and associated with a decrease in the low-frequency spectra of systolic blood pressure variability, suggesting reduced sympathetic vasomotor tone. The expression of CuZnSOD was localized to RVLM neurons, of which some contained tyrosine hydroxylase. None of the above variables changed in control rats receiving Ad-CMV-eGFP in RVLM. In Goldblatt hypertension, superoxide signaling in the RVLM plays a major role in the generation of sympathetic vasomotor tone and the chronic sustained hypertension in this animal model.

Oxidative stress in the sympathetic premotor neurons contributes to sympathetic activation in renovascular hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Based on previous data, we hypothesized that an increase of angiotensin II (Ang II)-via the Ang II type 1 (AT-1) receptor-in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus could activate NAD(P)H oxidase that will produce superoxides resulting in increased sympathetic activity and hypertension. METHODS: The mRNA expression of AT-1 receptors, NAD(P)H oxidase subunits (p47phox and gp91phox), and CuZnSOD were analyzed in the RVLM and PVN of male Wistar rats (Goldblatt hypertension model, 2K-1C). In addition, we administered Tempol 1 and 5 nmol into the RVLM, PVN, or systemically. The mean arterial pressure (MAP) and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) were analyzed. RESULTS: The AT-1 mRNA expression and NAD(P)H oxidase subunits was greater in the RVLM and PVN in 2K-1C compared to the control group. Furthermore, the CuZnSOD expression was similar in both groups. Tempol 1 nmol into the RVLM reduced MAP (15 +/- 1%) and RSNA (11 +/- 2%) only in 2K-1C rats. Tempol (5 nmol) in the same region decreased the MAP (12 +/- 4%) and RSNA (20 +/- 7%), respectively, only in 2K-1C. In the PVN, Tempol 5 nmol resulted in a significant fall in the MAP (24 +/- 1%) and in the RSNA (7.9 +/- 2%) only in the 2K-1C. Acute intravenous (IV) infusion of Tempol decreased MAP and RSNA in the 2K-1C but not in the control rats. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that the hypertension and sympathoexcitation in 2K-1C rats were associated with an increase in oxidative stress within the RVLM, the PVN and systemically.

Oxidative stress contributes to renovascular hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Oxidative stress is a state in which excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) overwhelm endogenous antioxidant systems. It is known that this state has been involved in the development of hypertension. On the basis of previous data, we hypothesized that overactivity of NAD(P)H oxidase-derived ROS and the lowered activity of CuZnSOD, an endogenous antioxidant within the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM), could contribute to 2K-1C (two-kidney one-clip) hypertension. Moreover, to test the functional significance of whether oxidative stress was involved in the maintenance of sympathetic vasomotor tone and blood pressure in 2K-1C hypertension, we administered Ascorbic Acid (Vit C), an antioxidant, into the RVLM or systemically. METHODS: Experiments were performed in male Wistar rats (6 weeks after renal surgery--Goldblatt hypertension model--2K-1C). The mRNA expression of NAD(P)H oxidase subunits (p47phox and gp91phox) and CuZnSOD were analyzed in the RVLM using real-time PCR technique. The mean arterial blood pressure, heart rate, and renal sympathetic nerve activity were analyzed. Blood samples were collected and measured using thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS). RESULTS: The mRNA expression of NAD(P)H oxidase subnits (p47phox and gp91pox) was greater in 2K-1C compared to the control group in the RVLM, and CuZnSOD expression was similar in both groups. In the RVLM, Vit C resulted in a fall in arterial pressure and in the sympathetic activity only in the 2K-1C rats. Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) were significantly greater in 2K-1C rats and the acute infusion of Vit C significantly decreased arterial pressure and renal sympathetic activity in 2K-1C. CONCLUSIONS: The results support the idea that an increase in oxidative stress within the RVLM and systemically plays a major role in maintaining high arterial blood pressure and sympathetic drive in 2K-1C hypertension.

Mecanismos fisiológicos e fisiopatológicos determinantes da atividade vasomotor simpática / Physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms determining the sympathetic vasomotor tone

RESUMO: A atividade vasomotora simpática é um dos determinantes da pressão arterial (PA). Estabelecer quais são os mecanismos geradores dessa atividade é importante para o entendimento de como o sistema cardiovascular opera, tanto em situações fisiológicas como fisiopatológicas. Os principais grupos pré-motores do simpático estão confinados no núcleo paraventricular do hipotálamo (PVN) e região rostoventrolateral bulbar (RVLM). Em diversas situações fisiopatológicas há aumento na atividade vasomotora simpática, em parte conseqüente a maior atividade dos neurônios do PVN e RVLM. Nesta breve revisão, foram discutidos os principais mecanismos de ativação simpática em diferentes modelos experimentais: 1) hipertensão renovascular, 2) hipertensão por baixa massa renal, 3) insuficiência cardíaca, 4) hipertensão por bloqueio do óxido nítrico, 5) obesidade e 6) dimorfismo sexual. As ações de diferentes mediadores sobre o PVN e RVLM podem em longo prazo determinar novos patamares de atividade simpática, modificando os níveis tensionais e dessa forma, contribuir para a progressão da doença cardiovascular.