Food waste from restaurant sector - Characterization for biorefinery approach.

The aim of this study is the analysis of food waste (FW) composition from local catering services to assess potential biorefinery development. Moisture content of different FW samples showed that 27-47% (w/w) was organic material. Main components were lipids (25.7-33.2, w/w), starch (16.2-29.4%, w/w) and proteins (23.5-18.3%, w/w) on a dry basis. A metal profile with Na and Mg as main components, followed by trace elements, i.e. Zn or Fe, was also found in food waste samples. Statistical tests in combination with principal component analysis provides an efficient methodology to establish specific composition variations between FW from different catering services, while relating them to FW typology. The combination of chemical characterization with statistical study constitutes a promising decision-making tool for FW processing and valorization. The innovative methodology presented in this study provides systematic evaluation of FW composition and variability to allow selection of the most appropriate valorization paths.

Germline transformation of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera.

The western corn rootworm (WCR), a major pest of maize, is notorious for rapidly adapting biochemically, behaviourally and developmentally to a variety of control methods. Despite much effort, the genetic basis of WCR adaptation remains a mystery. Since transformation-based applications such as transposon tagging and enhancer trapping have facilitated genetic dissection of model species such as Drosophila melanogaster, we developed a germline-transformation system for WCR in an effort to gain a greater understanding of the basic biology of this economically important insect. Here we report the use of a fluorescent-marked Minos element to create transgenic WCR. We demonstrate that the transgenic strains express both an eye-specific fluorescent marker and piggyBac transposase. We identified insertion-site junction sequences via inverse PCR and assessed insertion copy number using digital droplet PCR (ddPCR). Interestingly, most WCR identified as transgenic via visual screening for DsRed fluorescence proved to carry multiple Minos insertions when tested via ddPCR. A total of eight unique insertion strains were created by outcrossing the initial transgenic strains to nontransgenic WCR mates. Establishing transgenic technologies for this beetle is the first step towards bringing a wide range of transformation-based tools to bear on understanding WCR biology.

Ultrasound-assisted biodiesel production from Camelina sativa oil.

The main drawbacks of biodiesel production are high reaction temperatures, stirring and time. These could be alleviated by aiding transesterification with alternative energy sources, i.e. ultrasound (US). In this study, biodiesel was obtained from Camelina sativa oil, aided with an ultrasonic probe (20kHz, 70% duty cycle, 50% amplitude). Design of experiments included the combination of sonication and agitation cycles, w/wo heating (50°C). To gain knowledge about the implications of the proposed methodology, conventional transesterification was optimized, resulting in higher needs on catalyst concentration and reaction time, compared to the proposed reaction. Although FAME content met EN 14103 standard, FAME yields were lower than those provided by US-assisted transesterification. Energy consumption measurements showed that ultrasound assisted transesterification required lower energy, temperature, catalyst and reaction time.

Multiple response optimization of vegetable oils fatty acid composition to improve biodiesel physical properties.

The effect of fatty acids chain length (LC) and its interaction with unsaturation degree (UD) on important biodiesel quality parameters was studied. Low calorific value, kinematic viscosity, flash point, cetane number and cold filter plugging point of biodiesel blends covering a wide range of fatty acids were analyzed. Analytical results were processed with statistical regression to obtain a prediction model for each property, combining LC and UD. Due to the antagonistic effects of the chemical composition over quality properties, the Derringer desirability function was proposed to allow the most suitable fatty acid composition. This target was achieved considering an average of 1.26 double bounds and 17 carbon atoms. A set of combinations of LC and UD values that provides a biodiesel that fits the European standard EN 14214 was proposed. It was found that a reduction of FAME LC allows a lower UD while keeping biodiesel specifications under the standard limits.

Influence of vegetable oils fatty acid composition on reaction temperature and glycerides conversion to biodiesel during transesterification.

Presence of unreacted glycerides in biodiesel may reduce drastically its quality. This is why conversion of raw material in biodiesel through transesterification needs to readjust reaction parameter values to complete. In the present work, monitoring of glycerides transformation in biodiesel during the transesterification of vegetable oils was carried out. To check the influence of the chemical composition on glycerides conversion, selected vegetable oils covered a wide range of fatty acid composition. Reactions were carried out under alkali-transesterification in the presence of methanol. In addition, a multiple regression model was proposed. Results showed that kinetics depends on chemical and physical properties of the oils. It was found that the optimal reaction temperature depends on both length and unsaturation degree of vegetable oils fatty acid chains. Vegetable oils with higher degree of unsaturation exhibit faster monoglycerides conversion to biodiesel. It can be concluded that fatty acid composition influences reaction parameters and glycerides conversion, hence biodiesel yield and economic viability.

Influence of vegetable oils fatty-acid composition on biodiesel optimization.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines produced through transesterification of oleaginous feedstocks. To analyze the influence of the fatty-acid composition on biodiesel optimization, transesterification of several vegetable oils has been studied. Reactions were carried out in flasks filled with vegetable oils, heated to the reaction temperature and stirred at 1100 rpm. The reactions started when the methanol and potassium hydroxide solutions were added to the flasks. Concentration of catalyst, amount of methanol, reaction temperature and time were optimized using a factorial design and a surface response design. Also, a kinetics study was carried out to optimize the reaction time. Results showed that reaction parameters optimal values depend on the oil chemical and physical properties. It can be concluded from this field trial that the effect of both catalyst concentration and reaction time over the transesterification yield is greatly influenced by the saturation degree and fatty-acid chain length.

Response surface modeling to predict biodiesel yield in a multi-feedstock biodiesel production plant.

For economic reasons, multi-feedstock plants are preferred to produce biodiesel. However, the optimal conditions of the transesterification reaction depend on the raw material, thus making difficult the achievement of a high yield of biodiesel when different types of feedstock are used under the same operational settings. In the present work, a response surface methodology is proposed to both predict biodiesel yield when different raw materials are used to produce biodiesel and to determine the optimal operational conditions of a multi-feedstock plant. The optimization of the transesterification reaction of five vegetable oils consisting in a wide range of fatty acid profiles has been carried out. Results provided a compromise zone where all the experimental responses satisfied the imposed specifications to achieve the goals, where the best optimal combination of parameters was selected. According to this model, the tested properties of the produced biodiesel are within the limits of the EN 14214 standard. It can be concluded that this methodology provides the most suitable operational conditions to achieve the highest biodiesel yield in a multi-feedstock biodiesel plant, also considering the economics of the process.

Flow injection analysis-based methodology for automatic on-line monitoring and quality control for biodiesel production.

An automated on-line approach based on determination of free and bound glycerol was here proposed to monitor biodiesel production. The method was based on liquid-liquid extraction of glycerol from the biodiesel to an aqueous ethanolic phase in which glycerol is oxidized to formaldehyde with meta periodate with subsequent reaction with acetylacetone. The reaction product was photometrically measured at 410 nm. Free and bound glycerol were differentiated by glycerides hydrolysis with potassium ethylate. The experimental set-up consisted of a flow-injection manifold for liquid-liquid extraction without phase separation and iterative change of the flow direction that enabled: (a) filling the flow manifold with a meta periodate-acetylacetone acceptor phase; (b) sampling of small amounts (microl) from the reactor; (c) determination of free glycerol by extraction from biodiesel to the aqueous phase with simultaneous oxidation-reaction with acetylacetone in the acceptor phase; (d) continuous monitoring of the aqueous phase by passage through a photometric detector; (e) filling the flow manifold with a potassium ethylate-meta periodate-acetylacetone new acceptor phase; (d) repetition of steps b-to-d to determine total glycerol after saponification of the bound glycerol by potassium ethylate; and (f) determination of bound glycerol by difference between the second and first analyses. The results showed that the proposed automated on-line method is a suitable option in routine analysis during biodiesel production.