Exploring the self-assembly of dumbbell-shaped polyoxometalate hybrids, from molecular building units to nanostructured soft materials.

The formation of hierarchical nanostructures using preformed dumbbell-like species made of covalent organic-inorganic polyoxometalate (POM)-based hybrids is herein described. In this system, the presence of charged subunits (POM, metal linkers, and counter ions) in the complex molecular architecture can drive their aggregation, which results from a competition between the solvation energy of the discrete species and intermolecular electrostatic interactions. We show that the nature of the POM and the charge of the metal linker are key parameters for the hierarchical nanoorganization. The experimental findings were corroborated with a computational investigation combining DFT and molecular dynamics simulation methods, which outlines the importance of solvation of the counter ion and POM/counter ion association in the aggregation process. The dumbbell-like species can also form gels, in the presence of a poorer solvent, displaying similar nanoorganization of the aggregates. We show that starting from the designed molecular building units whose internal charges can be controlled by redox trigger we can achieve their implementation into soft nanostructured materials through the control of their supramolecular organization.

Control of the hierarchical self-assembly of polyoxometalate-based metallomacrocycles by redox trigger and solvent composition.

Discrete metallomacrocycles are attractive scaffolds for the formation of complex supramolecular architectures with emergent properties. We herein describe the formation of hierarchical nanostructures using preformed metallomacrocycles by coordination-driven self-assembly of a covalent organic-inorganic polyoxometalate (POM)-based hybrid. In this system, we take advantage of the presence of charged subunits (POM, metal linker, and counterions) within the metallomacrocycles, which drive their aggregation through intermolecular electrostatic interactions. We show that the solvent composition and the charge of the metal linker are key parameters that steer the supramolecular organization. Different types of hierarchical self-assemblies, zero-dimensional (0D) dense nanoparticles, and 1D worm-like nanoobjects, can be selectively formed owing to different aggregation modes of the metallomacrocycles. Finally, we report that the worm-like structures drastically enhance the solubility in water of a pyrene derivative and can act as molecular carriers.

Charge Effect on the Formation of Polyoxometalate-Based Supramolecular Polygons Driven by Metal Coordination.

The metal-driven self-assembly of a Keggin-based hybrid bearing two remote pyridine units was investigated. The resulting supramolecular species were identified by combination of 2D diffusion NMR spectroscopy (DOSY) and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) as a mixture of molecular triangles and squares. This behavior is different from that of the structural analogue Dawson-based hybrid displaying a higher charge, which only led to the formation of molecular triangles. This study highlights the decisive effect of the charge of the POMs in their self-assembly processes that disfavors the formation of large assemblies. An isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) experiment confirmed the stronger binding in the case of the Keggin hybrids. A correlation between the diffusion coefficient D and the molecular mass M of the POM-based building block and its coordination oligomers was also observed. We show that the diffusion coefficient of these compounds is mainly determined by their occupied volume rather than by their shape.

Hierarchical Self-Assembly of Polyoxometalate-Based Hybrids Driven by Metal Coordination and Electrostatic Interactions: From Discrete Supramolecular Species to Dense Monodisperse Nanoparticles.

The metal-driven self-assembly processes of a covalent polyoxometalate (POM)-based hybrid bearing remote terpyridine binding sites have been investigated. In a strongly dissociating solvent, a discrete metallomacrocycle, described as a molecular triangle, is formed and characterized by 2D diffusion NMR spectroscopy (DOSY), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and molecular modeling. In a less dissociating solvent, the primary supramolecular structure, combining negatively charged POMs and cationic metal linkers, further self-assemble through intermolecular electrostatic interactions in a reversible process. The resulting hierarchical assemblies are dense monodisperse nanoparticles composed of ca. 50 POMs that were characterized by SAXS and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This multiscale organized system directed by metal coordination and electrostatic interactions constitutes a promising step for the future design of POM self-assemblies with controllable structure-directing factors.

Metal-Directed Self-Assembly of a Polyoxometalate-Based Molecular Triangle: Using Powerful Analytical Tools to Probe the Chemical Structure of Complex Supramolecular Assemblies.

A polyoxometalate-based molecular triangle has been synthesized through the metal-driven self-assembly of covalent organic/inorganic hybrid oxo-clusters with remote pyridyl binding sites. The new metallomacrocycle was unambiguously characterized by using a combination of (1)H NMR spectroscopy, 2D diffusion NMR spectroscopy (DOSY), electrospray ionization travelling wave ion mobility mass spectrometry (ESI-TWIM-MS), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and molecular modelling. The collision cross-sections obtained from TWIM-MS and the hydrodynamic radii derived from DOSY are in good agreement with the geometry-optimized structures obtained by using theoretical calculations. Furthermore, SAXS was successfully employed and proved to be a powerful technique for characterizing such large supramolecular assemblies.