Prevalence of Escherichia coli O157 and O157:H7-infecting bacteriophages in feedlot cattle feces.

AIM: To estimate the distribution and prevalence of both Escherichia coli O157 and O157:H7-infecting bacteriophages within a 50,000 head commercial beef feedlot. METHODS AND RESULTS: Escherichia coli O157 was detected in approximately 27% of the individual samples, distributed across seven of the 10 pens screened. In a simple initial screen to detect O157:H7-infecting phages, none were detected in any pen or individual sample. In contrast, after a series of enrichment procedures O157:H7-infecting phages were detected in every pen and in the majority of the samples from most pens; virulent bacteriophages active against E. coli O157:H7 were detected post-enrichment from 39/60 (65%) of the feedlot samples, and 58/60 (approximately 97%) contained phage that infected E. coli B or O157:H7. CONCLUSIONS: The data we present here indicates that we may be grossly underestimating the prevalence of O157:H7-infecting phages in livestock if we simply screen samples and that enrichment screening is required to truly determine the presence of phages in these ecosystems. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Our data suggest that O157:H7-infecting phages may play a role in the ecology and transient colonization of cattle by E. coli O157:H7. Further, this and previous data suggest that before starting in vivo pathogen eradication studies using phage or any other regime, test animals should be enrichment screened for phage to avoid erroneous results.

Isolation and characterization of a slowly milk-coagulating variant of Lactobacillus helveticus deficient in purine biosynthesis.

A slowly milk-coagulating variant (Fmc(-)) of Lactobacillus helveticus CRL 1062, designated S1, was isolated and characterized. Strain S1 possessed all the known essential components required to utilize casein as a nitrogen source, which include functional proteinase and peptidase activities as well as functional amino acid, di- and tripeptide, and oligopeptide transport systems. The amino acid requirements of strain S1 were similar to those of the parental strain. However, on a purine-free, chemically defined medium, the growth rate of the Fmc(-) strain was threefold lower than that of the wild-type strain. L. helveticus S1 was found to be defective in IMP dehydrogenase activity and therefore was deficient in the ability to synthesize XMP and GMP. This conclusion was further supported by the observation that the addition of guanine or xanthine to milk, a substrate poor in purine compounds, restored the Fmc(+) phenotype of L. helveticus S1.

Nutritional requirements and nitrogen-dependent regulation of proteinase activity of Lactobacillus helveticus CRL 1062.

The nutritional requirements of Lactobacillus helveticus CRL 1062 were determined with a simplified chemically defined medium (SCDM) and compared with those of L. helveticus CRL 974 (ATCC 15009). Both strains were found to be prototrophic for alanine, glycine, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine. In addition, CRL 1062 also showed prototrophy for lysine and serine. The microorganisms also required riboflavin, calcium pantothenate, pyridoxal, nicotinic acid, and uracil for growth in liquid SCDM. The growth rate and the synthesis of their cell membrane-bound serine proteinases, but not of their intracellular leucyl-aminopeptidases, were influenced by the peptide content of the medium. The highest proteinase levels were found during cell growth in basal SCDM, while the synthesis of this enzyme was inhibited in SCDM supplemented with Casitone, Casamino Acids, or beta-casein. Low-molecular-mass peptides (<3,000 Da), extracted from Casitone, and the dipeptide leucylproline (final concentration, 5 mM) play important roles in the medium-dependent regulation of proteinase activity. The addition of the dipeptide leucylproline (5 mM) to SCDM reduced proteinase activity by 25%.

Characterization of natural isolates of Lactobacillus strains to be used as starter cultures in dairy fermentation.

The technological relevant characteristics of five homofermentative lactobacilli strains, isolated from natural fermented hard cheeses, were studied. Isolates CRL 581 and CRL 654, from Argentinian artesanal hard cheeses, and isolates CRL 1177, CRL 1178, and CRL 1179, from Italian Grana cheeses, were identified as Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis and Lactobacillus helveticus, respectively, by physiological and biochemical tests, SDS-PAGE of whole-cell proteins and sequencing of the variable (V1) region of the 16S ribosomal DNA. All strains showed high levels of beta-galactosidase activity. However, proteolytic activity varied widely among isolates. Strains CRL 581, CRL 654, and CRL 1177 hydrolyzed alpha- and beta-caseins and were able to coagulate reconstituted skim milk in less than 16 h at 42 degrees C. According to the substrate specificity, these proteinases have a caseinolytic activity comparable to that of the P(III)-type of lactococcal proteinases. No strains produced inhibitor substances (bacteriocin) and all were insensitive to attack by 14 L. helveticus- and L. delbrueckii subsp. lactis-specific bacteriophages.

Deoxyribonuclease activities in Lactobacillus delbrueckii.

DNase activity was examined in the extracellular and subcellular fractions of six non-transformable strains belonging to Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis (L. lactis) and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (L. bulgaricus) and compared with the activity present in Lactobacillus johnsonii NCK 65, a transformable strain of Lactobacillus. In the extracellular fraction of the L. delbrueckii strains, a common protein band of 36 kDa was detected, while a band of 29 kDa was found in the same fraction of L. johnsonii. No nuclease activity was detected in the cytoplasmic fraction of this strain, indicating that the localization of the DNase activity could be a key factor in the uptake of foreign DNA.

Identification and nucleotide sequence of genes involved in the synthesis of lactocin 705, a two-peptide bacteriocin from Lactobacillus casei CRL 705.

The structural gene determinants of lactocin 705, a bacteriocin produced by Lactobacillus casei CRL 705, have been amplified from a plasmid of approximately 35 kb and sequenced. Lactocin 705 is a class IIb bacteriocin, whose activity depends upon the complementation of two peptides (705alpha and 705beta) of 33 amino acid residues each. These peptides are synthesized as precursors with signal sequences of the double-glycine type, which exhibited high identities with the leader peptides of plantaricin S and J from Lactobacillus plantarum, brochocin C from Brochotrix campestris, sakacin P from Lactobacillus sake, and the competence stimulating peptides from Streptococcus gordonii and Streptococcus mitis. However, the two mature bacteriocins 705alpha and 705beta do not show significant similarity to other sequences in the databases.

Physical mapping and partial genetic characterization of the Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus bacteriophage lb539.

A restriction map was constructed of the 37 kb genome of the temperate Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus bacteriophage lb539. Restriction analysis and Southern hybridization experiments detected variable levels of homologous regions among the genomes of lb539 and the L. delbrueckii reference phages LL-H (virulent) and mv4 (temperate). The principal homology was observed at the regions encoding the structural proteins. These studies allowed us to construct a partial genetic map of phage lb539 for lysin, the main structural tail protein and the packaging region genes. Furthermore, a short 1.5 kb DNA fragment of the prolate-headed JCL1032 phage genome was observed to be highly homologous with the DNA of the isometric-headed lb539, mv4 and LL-H phages. The described distribution of the homologous regions between the genomes of the phages lb539, LL-H, mv4 and JCL1032 presented here supports the modular evolution theory of the bacteriophages.

Genetic organization and sequence of the region encoding integrative functions from Lactobacillus gasseri temperate bacteriophage phi adh.

A 2.0-kb fragment from the Lactobacillus gasseri temperate bacteriophage phi adh contained the essential genetic determinants for site-specific integration. The nucleotide sequence of this fragment was determined. An open reading frame (intG), which adjoined the phage attachment site (attP), encoded a deduced protein related to the integrase family. The organization of this region was comparable to other phage site-specific recombination systems.

Site-specific integration of the temperate bacteriophage phi adh into the Lactobacillus gasseri chromosome and molecular characterization of the phage (attP) and bacterial (attB) attachment sites.

The temperate bacteriophage phi adh integrates its genome into the chromosomal DNA of Lactobacillus gasseri ADH by a site-specific recombination process. Southern hybridization analysis of BclI-digested genomic DNA from six relysogenized derivatives of the prophage-cured strain NCK102 displayed phage-chromosomal junction fragments identical to those of the lysogenic parent. The phi adh attachment site sequence, attP, was located within a 365-bp EcoRI-HindIII fragment of phage phi adh. This fragment was cloned and sequenced. DNA sequence analysis revealed striking features common to the attachment sites of other site-specific recombination systems: five direct repeats of the sequence TGTCCCTTTT(C/T) and a 14-bp inverted repeat. Oligonucleotides derived from the sequence of the attP-containing fragment enabled us to amplify predicted junction fragment sequences and thus to identify attL, attR, and attB. The core region was defined as the 16-bp sequence TACACTTCTTAGGAGG. Phage-encoded functions essential for site-specific insertion of phage phi adh were located in a 4.5-kb BclI fragment. This fragment was cloned in plasmid pSA34 to generate the insertional vector pTRK182. Plasmid pTRK182 was introduced into L. gasseri NCK102 by electroporation. Hybridization analysis showed that a single copy of pTRK182 had integrated at the attB site of the NCK102 erythromycin-resistant transformants. This is the first site-specific recombination system described in lactobacilli, as well as the first attP-based site-specific integration vector constructed for L. gasseri ADH.

High-Frequency Plasmid Transduction by Lactobacillus gasseri Bacteriophage phiadh.

The temperate bacteriophage phiadh mediates plasmid DNA transduction in Lactobacillus gasseri ADH at frequencies in the range of 10 to 10 transductants per PFU. BglII-generated DNA fragments from phage phiadh were cloned into the BclI site of the transducible plasmid vector pGK12 (4.4 kb). Phage phiadh lysates induced from Lactobacillus lysogens harboring pGK12 or the recombinant plasmids were used to transduce strain ADH to chloramphenicol resistance. The transduction frequencies of recombinant plasmids were 10- to 10-fold higher than that of native pGK12. The increase in frequency generally correlated with the extent of DNA-DNA homology between plasmid and phage DNAs. The highest transduction frequency was obtained with plasmid pTRK170 (6.6 kb), a pGK12 derivative containing the 1.4- and 0.8-kb BglII DNA fragments of phiadh. DNA hybridization analysis of pTRK170-transducing phage particles revealed that pTRK170 had integrated into the phiadh genome, suggesting that recombination between homologous sequences present in phage and plasmid DNAs was responsible for the formation of high-frequency transducing phage particles. Plasmid DNA analysis of 13 transductants containing pTRK170 showed that each had acquired intact plasmids, indicating that in the process of transduction a further recombination step was involved in the resolution of plasmid DNA monomers from the recombinant pTRK170::phiadh molecule. In addition to strain ADH, pTRK170 could be transduced via phiadh to eight different L. gasseri strains, including the neotype strain, F. Gasser 63 AM (ATCC 33323).

Characterization of the temperate bacteriophage phi adh and plasmid transduction in Lactobacillus acidophilus ADH.

Lactobacillus acidophilus ADH is lysogenic and harbors an inducible prophage, phi adh. Bacteriophage were detected in cell lysates induced by treatment with mitomycin C or UV light. Electron microscopy of lysates revealed phage particles with a hexagonal head (62 nm) and a long, noncontractile, flexible tail (398 nm) ending in at last five short fibers. Phage phi adh was classified within Bradley's B1 phage group and the Siphoviridae family. The phi adh genome is a linear double-stranded DNA molecule of 41.7 kilobase pairs with cohesive ends: a physical map of the phi adh genome was constructed. A prophage-cured derivative of strain ADH, designated NCK102, was isolated from cells that survived UV exposure. NCK102 did not exhibit mitomycin C-induced lysis, but broth cultures lysed upon addition of phage. Phage phi adh produced clear plaques on NCK102 in media containing 10 mM CaCl2 at pH values between 5.2 and 5.5. A relysogenized derivative (NCK103) of NCK102 was isolated that exhibited mitomycin C-induced lysis and superinfection immunity to phage phi adh. Hybridization experiments showed that the phi adh genome was present in the ADH and NCK103 chromosomes, but absent in NCK102. These results demonstrated classic lytic and lysogenic cycles of replication for the temperate phage phi adh induced from L. acidophilus ADH. Phage phi adh also mediates transduction of plasmid DNA. Transductants of strain ADH containing pC194, pGK12, pGB354, and pVA797 were detected at frequencies in the range of 3.6 x 10(-8) to 8.3 x 10(-10) per PFU. Rearrangements or deletions were not detected in these plasmids as a consequence of transduction. This is the first description of plasmid transduction in the genus Lactobacillus.

Genetic transfer systems for delivery of plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid to Lactobacillus acidophilus ADH: conjugation, electroporation, and transduction.

Lactobacillus acidophilus ADH is a bacteriocin-producing human isolate that adheres to human fetal intestinal cells and human ileal cells. We have employed both electroporation and conjugation methodologies to transfer various plasmids to L. acidophilus ADH. Furthermore, we have demonstrated transduction of plasmid DNA within this strain by a temperate bacteriophage (phi adh) harbored by L. acidophilus ADH. Plasmid pGK12 was introduced into strain ADH by electroporation at frequencies as high as 3.3 X 10(5) transformants/micrograms of plasmid DNA. Transconjugants of strain ADH were recovered at frequencies of 10(-2) (pAMB1), 10(-4) (pVA797::Tn917), and 10(-4) (pVA797) per donor cell after filter-mating with Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis. Plasmid pGK12 was transduced from a phage phi adh lysogen into a recipient strain of L. acidophilus ADH at an average frequency of 3.4 X 10(-8) transductants/pfu. Transformants, transconjugants, or transductants were verified by both phenotype and plasmid profile for acquisition of plasmid DNA. The ability to transfer plasmids and mobilize DNA sequences by electroporation, conjugation, and transduction will augment our efforts to define and characterize the activities of L. acidophilus in the intestinal tract.