Pollination in the Rainforest: Scarce Visitors and Low Effective Pollinators Limit the Fruiting Success of Tropical Orchids.

A single plant might be visited by many flower visitors but not all might act as pollinators. Legitimate pollinators might also differ considerably in their efficiency, limiting pollination success. Unsuitable climatic conditions such as rain also affect pollinator activity. However, in the evergreen rainforest there is no prolonged dry season and flowering occurs usually under rain. Here, we explore the dependence on pollinators and the efficiency of flower visitors for the fruiting success of 10 Andean rainforest orchids. All species were self-compatible but strictly pollinator-dependent. Overall, we found low levels of fruit set in control flowers while experimental geitonogamous and cross-pollinations increased fruit set, revealing extensive pollination limitation in all populations. Seed viability dropped considerably after self and geitonogamous pollinations suggesting the possibility of early-acting inbreeding depression. Even though we monitored flower visitors on an extensive survey, few visitors were seen in these species and even fewer acted as legitimate pollinators. Thus, even though orchid pollination might be extremely diversified, these results show that few visitors are pollinating these species, explaining the low levels of fruit set recorded in the area studied.

Strengthening preventive care programs: a permanent challenge for healthcare systems; lessons from PREVENIMSS México.

BACKGROUND: In 2001, the Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) carried out a major reorganization to provide comprehensive preventive care to reinforce primary care services through the PREVENIMSS program. This program divides the population into programmatic age groups that receive specific preventive services: children (0-9 years), adolescents (10-19 years), men (20-59 years), women (20-59 years) and older adults (> = 60 years). The objective of this paper is to describe the improvement of the PREVENIMSS program in terms of the increase of coverage of preventive actions and the identification of unmet needs of unsolved and emergent health problems. METHODS: From 2003 to 2006, four nation-wide cross-sectional probabilistic population based surveys were conducted using a four stage sampling design. Thirty thousand households were visited in each survey. The number of IMSS members interviewed ranged from 79,797 respondents in 2003 to 117,036 respondents in 2006. RESULTS: The four surveys showed a substantial increase in coverage indicators for each age group: children, completed schemes of vaccination (> 90%), iron supplementation (17.8% to 65.5%), newborn screening for metabolic disorders (60.3% to 81.6%). Adolescents, measles - rubella vaccine (52.4% to 71.4%), hepatitis vaccine (9.3% to 46.2%), use of condoms (17.9% to 59.9%). Women, measles-rubella vaccine (28.5% to 59-2%), cervical cancer screening (66.7% to 75%), breast cancer screening (> 2.1%). Men, type 2 diabetes screening (38.6% to 57.8%) hypertension screening (48-4% to 64.0%). Older adults, pneumococcal vaccine (13.2% to 24.9%), influenza vaccine (12.6% to 52.9) Regarding the unmet needs, the prevalence of anemia in children was 30% and a growing prevalence of overweight and obesity, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension was found in men, women and older adults. CONCLUSION: PREVENIMSS showed an important increase in the coverage of preventive services and stressed the magnitude of the old and new challenges that this healthcare system faces. The unsolved problems such as anemia, and the emerging ones such as overweight, obesity, among others, point out the need to strength preventive care through designing and implementing innovative programs aimed to attain effective coverage for those conditions in which prevention obtains substandard results.

An international trial of antioxidants in the prevention of preeclampsia (INTAPP).

OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate whether prenatal vitamin C and E supplementation reduces the incidence of gestational hypertension (GH) and its adverse conditions among high- and low-risk women. STUDY DESIGN: In a multicenter randomized controlled trial, women were stratified by the risk status and assigned to daily treatment (1 g vitamin C and 400 IU vitamin E) or placebo. The primary outcome was GH and its adverse conditions. RESULTS: Of the 2647 women randomized, 2363 were included in the analysis. There was no difference in the risk of GH and its adverse conditions between groups (relative risk, 0.99; 95% confidence interval, 0.78-1.26). However, vitamins C and E increased the risk of fetal loss or perinatal death (nonprespecified) as well as preterm prelabor rupture of membranes. CONCLUSION: Vitamin C and E supplementation did not reduce the rate of preeclampsia or GH, but increased the risk of fetal loss or perinatal death and preterm prelabor rupture of membranes.

Autopercepción del estado de salud: una aproximación al los ancianos en México / Self-perceived health status: an approach of the elderly in Mexico

OBJETIVO: Evaluar el estado de salud de los ancianos mexicanos a través de la autopercepción y analizar los factores sociales, de salud y organizacionales asociados. MÉTODOS: Estudio de datos secundarios de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud 2000 en México. Se realizó análisis de regresión logística múltiple. La variable dependiente fue el estado de salud medido a través de la autopercepción de salud. Las variables independientes seleccionadas fueron: características sociodemográficas, hábitos de riesgo, accidentes, diagnóstico de enfermedades y mediciones clínicas. RESULTADOS: Se analizó a 7,322 adultos de 60 años y mayores, que representan al total de la población (7 por ciento) en ese grupo de edad en México. De estos, 19.8 por ciento reportó estado de salud como malo o muy malo. Los factores asociados a mala salud fueron edad, sexo femenino, no tener seguro social, ser divorciado, dedicarse al hogar, estar incapacitado, no tener trabajo, consumo de tabaco, problema de salud, accidentes y diagnóstico de enfermedades crónicas. CONCLUSIONES: El análisis de factores asociados permitió determinar elementos que influyen en mal estado de salud de ancianos. Los hallazgos podrían considerarse en la formulación de acciones y programas de atención para esa población en México.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate health status of the elderly in Mexico through their self-perception and to describe social, organizational and health-related factors. METHODS: A study was carried out on secondary data from the 2000 National Health Survey in Mexico. Multiple logistic regression models were used. The dependent variable health status was measured through self-perception. The independent variables included were: sociodemographic characteristics, risk behaviors, accidents, disease diagnosis and clinical measures. RESULTS: A total of 7,322 adults aged 60 years and older were studied, which represents 7 percent of the total population in that age group in Mexico. Of them, 19.8 percent reported poor or very poor health status. Factors found to be associated to poor health were age, female sex, having no social security, being divorced, homemaker, disabled, unemployed, tobacco consumption, having a health condition, accidents and diagnosed with chronic diseases. CONCLUSIONS: The study allowed to identifying factors that may contribute to poor health status in the elderly. These findings could be taken into account in the development of actions and health care programs for this population in Mexico.

Influence of physician factors on the effectiveness of a continuing medical education intervention.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Continuing medical education (CME) is essential for improving the quality of care in primary health care settings. This study's objective was to determine how the characteristics of family physicians influenced the effectiveness of a multifaceted CME intervention to improve the management of acute respiratory infection (ARI) or type 2 diabetes (DM2). METHODS: A secondary analysis was conducted based on data from 121 family physicians, who participated in the educational intervention study. The outcome variable was positive change in physician's performance for treatment of ARI or DM2. The exposure variable was multifaceted CME intervention. Independent variables were professional physicians and organizational characteristics. Analysis included log binomial regression modeling. RESULTS: Factors influencing positive change included, for ARI, participation in the CME intervention and medical director interested in that condition and for DM2, participation in the CME intervention, medical director interested in DM2, and being a teacher. CONCLUSIONS: Physicians' characteristics and organizational environment influence the effectiveness of educational intervention and are therefore relevant to the implementation of CME strategies.

[Self-perceived health status: an approach of the elderly in Mexico]. / Autopercepción del estado de salud: una aproximación al los ancianos en México.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate health status of the elderly in Mexico through their self-perception and to describe social, organizational and health-related factors. METHODS: A study was carried out on secondary data from the 2000 National Health Survey in Mexico. Multiple logistic regression models were used. The dependent variable health status was measured through self-perception. The independent variables included were: sociodemographic characteristics, risk behaviors, accidents, disease diagnosis and clinical measures. RESULTS: A total of 7,322 adults aged 60 years and older were studied, which represents 7% of the total population in that age group in Mexico. Of them, 19.8% reported poor or very poor health status. Factors found to be associated to poor health were age, female sex, having no social security, being divorced, homemaker, disabled, unemployed, tobacco consumption, having a health condition, accidents and diagnosed with chronic diseases. CONCLUSIONS: The study allowed to identifying factors that may contribute to poor health status in the elderly. These findings could be taken into account in the development of actions and health care programs for this population in Mexico.

The family as a determinant of stunting in children living in conditions of extreme poverty: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Malnutrition in children can be a consequence of unfavourable socioeconomic conditions. However, some families maintain adequate nutritional status in their children despite living in poverty. The aim of this study was to ascertain whether family-related factors are determinants of stunting in young Mexican children living in extreme poverty, and whether these factors differ between rural or urban contexts. METHODS: A case-control study was conducted in one rural and one urban extreme poverty level areas in Mexico. Cases comprised stunted children aged between 6 and 23 months. Controls were well-nourished children. Independent variables were defined in five dimensions: family characteristics; family income; household allocation of resources and family organisation; social networks; and child health care. Information was collected from 108 cases and 139 controls in the rural area and from 198 cases and 211 controls in the urban area. Statistical analysis was carried out separately for each area; unconditional multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to obtain the best explanatory model for stunting. RESULTS: In the rural area, a greater risk of stunting was associated with father's occupation as farmer and the presence of family networks for child care. The greatest protective effect was found in children cared for exclusively by their mothers. In the urban area, risk factors for stunting were father with unstable job, presence of small social networks, low rate of attendance to the Well Child Program activities, breast-feeding longer than six months, and two variables within the family characteristics dimension (longer duration of parents' union and migration from rural to urban area). CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests the influence of the family on the nutritional status of children under two years of age living in extreme poverty areas. Factors associated with stunting were different in rural and urban communities.Therefore, developing and implementing health programs to tackle malnutrition should take into account such differences that are consequence of the social, economic, and cultural contexts in which the family lives.

Critical pathways for the management of preeclampsia and severe preeclampsia in institutionalised health care settings.

BACKGROUND: Preeclampsia is a complex disease in which several providers should interact continuously and in a coordinated manner to provide proper health care. However, standardizing criteria to treat patients with preeclampsia is problematical and severe flaws have been observed in the management of the disease. This paper describes a set of critical pathways (CPs) designed to provide uniform criteria for clinical decision-making at different levels of care of pregnant patients with preeclampsia or severe preeclampsia. METHODS: Clinicians and researchers from different countries participated in the construction of the CPs. The CPs were developed using the following steps: a) Definition of the conceptual framework; b) Identification of potential users: primary care physicians and maternal and child health nurses in ambulatory settings; ob/gyn and intensive care physicians in secondary and tertiary care levels. c) Structural development. RESULTS: The CPs address the following care processes: 1. Screening for preeclampsia, risk assessment and classification according to the level of risk. 2. Management of preeclampsia at primary care clinics. 3. Evaluation and management of preeclampsia at secondary and tertiary care hospitals: 4. Criteria for clinical decision-making between conservative management and expedited delivery of patients with severe preeclampsia. CONCLUSION: Since preeclampsia continues to be one of the primary causes of maternal deaths and morbidity worldwide, the expected impact of these CPs is the contribution to improving health care quality in both developed and developing countries. The CPs are designed to be applied in a complex health care system, where different physicians and health providers at different levels of care should interact continuously and in a coordinated manner to provide care to all preeclamptic women. Although the CPs were developed using evidence-based criteria, they could require careful evaluation and remodelling according to each system's demands. Additionally, the CPs need to be tested in large-scale, multi-level studies in order to thoroughly examine and evaluate their efficacy and effectiveness.

Frequency and determinants of vitamin A deficiency in children under 5 years of age with pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been closely related to acute respiratory infections (ARI), although information is still incomplete; for example, the frequency of VAD in children <5 years of age with pneumonia is not known, and the conditions associated with VAD have not been identified. This study was conducted to gain insight into the status of vitamin A in children with pneumonia. A secondary objective was to identify the sociodemographic, individual, and nutritional factors associated with VAD in these children. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in the Mexican state of Hidalgo, one of the poorest in the country. Children with community-acquired pneumonia treated at nine public hospitals were included. Information was obtained by interviewing mothers, and ascertainment of vitamin A status was performed with relative-dose-response (RDR) test. RESULTS: A total of 422 cases were included. VAD was identified in 17.8% of children; 50.3% showed normal results, 24.6% had liver reserve depletion, and 7.3% showed results attributable to the infectious process. Variables associated with VAD were as follows: age <2 months (OR 3.44, 95% CI: 1.84-9.24); children >6 months of age fed with formula (OR 0.37, 95% CI: 0.15-0.91), and affiliation with the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) health system (OR 0.40, 95% CI: 0.22-0.72). CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of VAD in children with community-acquired pneumonia confirms that the problem of deficiency persists in Mexico. The associated factors for VAD found in this study can be taken into account when planning and evaluating vitamin A supplementation activities in populations with high risk for deficiency.

Impacto de los servicios de salud, en saneamiento y la alfabetización en la mortalidad de menores de cinco años / Impact of health care services, sanitation and education on mortality rates of children under five years of age

Objetivo. Analizar el impacto de los servicios de salud, el saneamiento y la alfabetización en la mortalidad de menores de cinco años en dos estados con diferentes características socioculturales Chiapas y Nuevo León. Material y métodos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico con base en el análisis secundario de datos publicados por la Secretaría de Salud, el Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática y el Consejo Nacional de Población, relativos a las tendencia de la mortalidad de menores de cinco años y a cambios de diversos indicadores, correspondientes al periodo de 1990-1997. Mencionar al tratamiento estadístico de los datos. Se realizó un estudio ecológico con base en el análisis secundario de datos publicados por la Secretaría de Salud, el Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática y el Consejo Nacional de Población, relativos a las tendencias de MMCA y a cambios de diversos indicadores, correspondientes al periodo de 1990-1997. Para ambos estados se calcularon las variaciones registradas y se determinaron las tendencias mediante análisis de regresión lineal simple, en el que la variable independiente correspondió a los años de estudio. Se hizo también análisis de correlación parcial entre las diversas tendencias de mortalidad estudiadas y entre éstas y los indicadores seleccionados. Resultados. En el periodo estudiado se registró un marcado descenso de la mortalidad de menores de cinco años que fue más acentuado en Chiapas; en ambas entidades se relacionó principalmente con la disminución de mortalidad por enfermedad diarreica, aunque también con la de sarampión e infecciones respiratorias agudas. En Chiapas los indicadores que correlacionaron más significativamente con este descenso fueron las coberturas de vacunación y el alfabetismo; en Nuevo León, el aumento en el número de enfermeras, las coberturas de vacunación, el alfabetismo y las viviendas con agua entubada. Conclusiones. En el periodo estudiado se redujo la diferencial en las tasas de mortalidad de menores a acelerar tal decenso es necesario continuar con los programas analizados y, en Chiapas o estados similares, ampliar en forma más acelerada la infraestructura en salud