Oncogenic E17K mutation in the pleckstrin homology domain of AKT1 promotes v-Abl-mediated pre-B-cell transformation and survival of Pim-deficient cells.

Abl-mediated transformation requires the activation of multiple pathways involved in the cellular proliferation and survival, including PI3K/AKT and JAK/STAT-dependent Pim kinases. Recently, the E17K mutation in the AKT1 has been associated with multiple human malignancies and leukemia in mice. However, this mutation has not been identified in Abl-transformed cells. We investigated the presence of the AKT1(E17K) mutation in v-Abl-transformed cell clones. AKT1(E17K) was detected in 3 (2.6%) of 116 specimens examined. To show the involvement of AKT1(E17K) directly in v-Abl-mediated tumorigenesis, we infected bone marrow cells from mice with bicistronic retroviruses encoding v-Abl and either wild-type or the mutant AKT1. Interestingly, we found that E17K mutant greatly increased the v-Abl transformation efficiency as compared with wild-type AKT1. Ectopic expression of E17K mutant increased the expression levels of antiapoptotic protein BCL2 and phosphorylation levels of proapoptotic protein BAD. This correlated with an increased protection from imatinib-induced apoptosis in Abl transformants. Furthermore, AKT1(E17K) promotes survival of the Pim-deficient cells, indicating a functional link between AKT and Pim in v-Abl transformation. In addition, AKT1(E17K) delays loss of Pim-1 and Pim-2 protein levels on v-Abl inactivation, which suggests that there exists reciprocal signaling between AKT and Pim in v-Abl transformants.

T-helper type 2 polarization among asthmatics during and following pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Asthma is the most common medical condition during pregnancy. While increased production of T helper cytokines has been reported to occur in both asthma and pregnancy, the effect of T-helper type 2 (Th2) polarization on asthma symptoms during pregnancy has not been well-characterized. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that systemic Th2 cytokine and chemokine polarization occurs among asthmatics to a greater extent during their pregnancy, and is associated with more severe asthma and increased Th2 polarization in the newborn. METHODS: Fifty-six pregnant asthmatics were recruited from prenatal clinics affiliated with New York Presbyterian Hospital. Systemic production of interleukin-4, interferon-gamma, eotaxin and IP10 were measured by intracytoplasmic staining or ELISA at recruitment, peripartum and post-partum, and in the cord blood. The frequency of asthma symptoms was measured by questionnaires and compared with Th biomarkers. RESULTS: The chemokine ratio (IP10/eotaxin) declined over the course of pregnancy (from 3.3 +/- 1.3 to 1.4 +/- 0.2, P = 0.016), but IP10 and eotaxin increased post-partum. The decrease in the chemokine ratio was associated with more frequent asthma symptoms. A non-significant trend towards decreased interferon-gamma and increased interleukin-4 production was detected. Cord blood eotaxin levels correlated with maternal levels (r = 0.35, P = 0.03). Other peripartum biomarkers were not associated with Th2 polarization nor with subsequent respiratory symptoms in the newborn. CONCLUSION: IP10/eotaxin declined over the course of pregnancy and was associated with worse asthma symptoms. Alterations of Th1/Th2 chemokine balance during pregnancy may identify women prone to more severe asthma during pregnancy.

Regulation of IFN-gamma signaling is essential for the cytotoxic activity of CD8(+) T cells.

Previous studies have demonstrated that, as naive murine CD4(+) cells differentiate into Th1 cells, they lose expression of the second chain of IFN-gammaR (IFN-gammaR2). Hence, the IFN-gamma-producing subset of Th cells is unresponsive to IFN-gamma. Analysis of IFN-gamma-producing CD8(+) T cells demonstrates that, like Th1 cells, these cells do not express IFN-gammaR2. To define the importance of IFN-gamma signaling for the development of functional CD8(+) T cells, mice either lacking IFN-gammaR2 or overexpressing this protein were examined. While CD8(+) T cell development and function appear normal in IFN-gammaR2(-/-) mice, CD8(+) T cell function in IFN-gammaR2 transgenic is altered. IFN-gammaR2 transgenic CD8(+) T cells are unable to lyse target cells in vitro. However, these cells produce Fas ligand, perforin, and granzyme B, the effector molecules required for killing. Interestingly, TG CD8(+) T cells proliferate normally and produce cytokines, such as IFN-gamma in response to antigenic stimulation. Therefore, although IFN-gamma signaling is not required for the generation of normal cytotoxic T cells, constitutive IFN-gamma signaling can selectively impair the cytotoxic function of CD8(+) T cells.

Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif of the IL-4 receptor associates with SH2-containing phosphatases and regulates IL-4-induced proliferation.

Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs (ITIM) have been implicated in the negative modulation of immunoreceptor signaling pathways. The IL-4R alpha-chain (IL-4Ralpha) contains a putative ITIM in the carboxyl terminal. To determine the role of ITIM in the IL-4 signaling pathway, we ablated the ITIM of IL-4Ralpha by deletion and site-directed mutagenesis and stably expressed the wild-type (WT) and mutant hIL-4Ralpha in 32D/insulin receptor substrate-2 (IRS-2) cells. Strikingly, 32D/IRS-2 cells expressing mutant human (h)IL-4Ralpha were hyperproliferative in response to IL-4 compared with cells expressing WT hIL-4Ralpha. Enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat6, but not IRS-2, induced by hIL-4 was observed in cells expressing mutant Y713F. Using peptides corresponding to the ITIM of hIL-4Ralpha, we demonstrate that tyrosine-phosphorylated peptides, but not their nonphosphorylated counterparts, coprecipitate SH2-containing tyrosine phosphatase-1, SH2-containing tyrosine phosphatase-2, and SH2-containing inositol 5'-phosphatase. The in vivo association of SH2-containing inositol 5'-phosphatase with IL-4Ralpha was verified by coimmunoprecipitation with anti-IL-4Ralpha Abs. These results demonstrate a functional role for ITIM in the regulation of IL-4-induced proliferation.

Fes mediates the IL-4 activation of insulin receptor substrate-2 and cellular proliferation.

Although Jak kinases are essential for initiating cytokine signaling, the role of other nonreceptor tyrosine kinases in this process remains unclear. We have examined the role of Fes in IL-4 signaling. Examination of Jak1-deficient cell lines demonstrates that Jak1 is required for the activation of Fes by IL-4. Experiments studying signaling molecules activated by IL-4 receptor suggest that IL-4 signaling can be subdivided into Fes-dependent and Fes-independent pathways. Overexpression of kinase-inactive Fes blocks the IL-4 activation of insulin receptor substrate-2, but not STAT6. Fes appears to be a downstream kinase from Jak1/Jak3 in this process. Further examination of downstream signaling demonstrates that kinase-inactive Fes inhibits the recruitment of phosphoinositide 3-kinase to the activated IL-4 receptor complex and decreases the activation of p70(S6k) kinase in response to IL-4. This inhibition correlates with a decrease in IL-4-induced proliferation. In contrast, mutant Fes does not inhibit the activation of Akt by IL-4. These data demonstrate that signaling pathways activated by IL-4 require different tyrosine kinases. This differential requirement predicts that specific kinase inhibitors may permit the disruption of specific IL-4-induced functions.

Interferon-gamma receptor signaling is dispensable in the development of autoimmune type 1 diabetes in NOD mice.

There have been two previous conflicting reports that the development of T-cell-mediated autoimmune diabetes (type 1 diabetes) was respectively unaffected or inhibited in NOD mice genetically deficient in the T-helper (Th) 1 cytokine interferon (IFN)-gamma or the alpha-chain subunit of its receptor. Our goal was to resolve this conundrum by congenically transferring, from a 129 donor strain to the NOD background, a functionally inactivated gene for the beta-chain signaling (located on chromosome 16) rather than the alpha-chain ligand binding domain (located on chromosome 10) of the IFN-gamma receptor. These NOD.IFNgammaRBnull mice were characterized by normal patterns of leukocyte development and T-cells that produced greatly enhanced levels of the putatively type 1 diabetes-protective Th2 cytokine interleukin (IL)-4. However, despite being unable to respond to the primary Thl cytokine IFN-gamma and having T-cells that produce greatly enhanced levels of IL-4, NOD.IFNgammaRBnull mice remained highly susceptible to type 1 diabetes. This result indicated that the previously reported inhibition of type 1 diabetes in NOD mice carrying a functionally inactivated IFN-gamma receptor alpha-chain gene may have been due to a closely linked and previously unidentified diabetes resistance allele. Furthermore, our results indicate that the pathogenicity of diabetogenic T-cells in NOD mice is not dampened by an inability to respond to IFN-gamma and a concurrent shift to greatly enhanced Th2 cytokine production. This finding calls into question whether clinical protocols designed to shift beta-cell autoreactive T-cells from a Thl to Th2 cytokine production profile will truly be safe and efficacious in blocking the development of type 1 diabetes in humans.

Interferon gamma signaling alters the function of T helper type 1 cells.

One mechanism regulating the ability of different subsets of T helper (Th) cells to respond to cytokines is the differential expression of cytokine receptors. For example, Th2 cells express both chains of the interferon gamma receptor (IFN-gammaR), whereas Th1 cells do not express the second chain of the IFN-gammaR (IFN-gammaR2) and are therefore unresponsive to IFN-gamma. To determine whether the regulation of IFN-gammaR2 expression, and therefore IFN-gamma responsiveness, is important for the differentiation of naive CD4(+) T cells into Th1 cells or for Th1 effector function, we generated mice in which transgenic (TG) expression of IFN-gammaR2 is controlled by the CD2 promoter and enhancer. CD4(+) T cells from IFN-gammaR2 TG mice exhibit impaired Th1 polarization potential in vitro. TG mice also display several defects in Th1-dependent immunity in vivo, including attenuated delayed-type hypersensitivity responses and decreased antigen-specific IFN-gamma production. In addition, TG mice mount impaired Th1 responses against Leishmania major, as manifested by increased parasitemia and more severe lesions than their wild-type littermates. Together, these data suggest that the sustained expression of IFN-gammaR2 inhibits Th1 differentiation and function. Therefore, the acquisition of an IFN-gamma-unresponsive phenotype in Th1 cells plays a crucial role in the development and function of these cells.

Positive regulation of interleukin-4-mediated proliferation by the SH2-containing inositol-5'-phosphatase.

The SH2-containing inositol 5'-phosphatase (SHIP) is tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-3, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor. SHIP has been shown to modulate negatively these cytokine signalings; however, a potential role in IL-4 signaling remains uncharacterized. It has been recently shown that IL-4 induces tyrosine phosphorylation of SHIP, implicating the phosphatase in IL-4 processes. Tyrosine kinases, Jak1 and Jak3, involved in IL-4 signaling can associate with SHIP, yet only Jak1 can tyrosine-phosphorylate SHIP when co-expressed. In functional studies, cells overexpressing wild type SHIP are found to be hyperproliferative in response to IL-4 in comparison to parental cells. In contrast, cells expressing catalytically inactive form, SHIP(D672A), show reduced proliferation in response to IL-4. These changes in IL-4-induced proliferation correlate with alterations in phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate levels. However, no differential activation of STAT6, Akt, IRS-2, or p70(S6k), in response to IL-4, was observed in these cells. These data suggest that the catalytic activity of SHIP acts in a novel manner to influence IL-4 signaling. In addition, these data support recent findings that suggest there are uncharacterized signaling pathways downstream of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate.

IL-4/IL-13 signaling beyond JAK/STAT.

In the past several years, extensive studies on the mechanisms underlying IL-4 and IL-13 signaling have enabled us to gain insight into how these cytokines regulate immune responses. Because both IL-4 and IL-13 use the IL-4Ralpha as a receptor component, these cytokines activate many common signaling pathways. Both of these cytokines use Janus kinases (JAKs) to initiate signaling and activate signal transducer and activator of transcription-6 (STAT6), which is a transcription factor required for many of their biologic functions. In addition to JAK/STAT, these cytokines also activate a variety of other signaling molecules that are important in regulating IL-4-induced proliferation and protection from apoptosis. Suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 (SOCS-1) is a molecule that can inhibit the activation of IL-4 signaling through the inhibition of JAKs. The Fes tyrosine kinase is activated by IL-4 and appears to be important in regulating IL-4-induced proliferation through the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS) molecules. IRS molecules are essential for IL-4-induced proliferation through their ability to recruit phosphoinositol-3 kinase to the activated IL-4 receptor kinase. In addition, IL-4 can activate a number of phosphatases including SH2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP), SHP-1, and SHP-2. Finally, B-cell lymphoma gene-6 (BCL-6) appears to regulate a subset of IL-4-induced genes. Thus the biologic responses induced by IL-4/IL-13 require a complex interaction of signaling pathways and regulators.

JAK-STAT signaling activated by Abl oncogenes.

The Abl oncoproteins v-Abl and BCR-Abl can activate member of the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) family of signaling proteins. The mechanisms by which these oncoproteins activate STATs appear to differ. In cells transformed by v-Abl, Janus kinase (JAK) tyrosine kinases are constitutively activated. In these cells, the v-Abl oncoprotein and the JAK kinases physically associate. Mapping of the JAK interaction domain in v-Abl demonstrates that amino acids within the carboxyl terminal region of v-Abl bind JAKs through a direct interaction. A mutant of v-Abl lacking this region does not bind or activate JAK 1 in vivo, fails to activate STAT proteins, does not induce cellular proliferation, and is less efficient in cellular transformation. Kinase inactive mutants of JAK 1 inhibit the ability of v-Abl to activate STATs, to induce cytokine-independent proliferation, and to transform bone marrow cells. Interestingly, these effects correlate with defects in the activation of several pathways by v-Abl including Akt, PI3-kinase, STATs, and Ras. These data suggest that Jak kinases may play an important role in v-Abl induced transformation. Oncogene (2000).

A thrombopoietin receptor mutant deficient in Jak-STAT activation mediates proliferation but not differentiation in UT-7 cells.

Thrombopoietin (TPO) stimulates proliferation and differentiation of cells of the megakaryocytic lineage. It exerts its function by binding and activating c-mpl, a member of the hematopoietic receptor superfamily. Upon binding of TPO to its receptor, numerous signaling events are triggered. These include activation of the Jak-STAT (signal transducers and activators of transcription) pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Tec, and phospatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase and phosphorylation of Shc and Vav. The contribution of different signaling pathways to the induction of specific cellular processes such as proliferation and differentiation is incompletely understood. We have previously described a mutant of c-mpl that fails to activate the Jak-STAT pathway but nevertheless retains its ability to mediate proliferation and activation of most signaling events in the murine hematopoietic precursor cell lines BAF/3 and 32D. We confirm here the ability of this mutant to mediate proliferation in the absence of Jak-STAT activation in the human cell line UT-7 and further show that this mutant fails to mediate TPO-induced megakaryocytic differentiation. Comparison of the signaling capacity of this mutant in UT-7 and BAF/3 cells shows considerable cell-type-specific differences. Whereas in BAF/3 cells the mutant still mediates activation of Shc, MAPK, Vav, and PI 3-kinase at levels comparable to the wild-type receptor, these events are strongly diminished in UT-7 cells expressing the mutant. Furthermore, we show that the C-terminal 25 amino acid residues of the receptor mutant are crucial for the mitogenic response in UT-7 cells.

Transcriptional repression of Stat6-dependent interleukin-4-induced genes by BCL-6: specific regulation of iepsilon transcription and immunoglobulin E switching.

The BCL-6 proto-oncogene encodes a POZ/zinc-finger transcription factor that is expressed in B cells and a subset of CD4(+) T cells within germinal centers. Recent evidence suggests that BCL-6 can act as a sequence-specific repressor of transcription, but the target genes for this activity have not yet been identified. The binding site for BCL-6 shares striking homology to the sites that are the target sequence for the interleukin-4 (IL-4)-induced Stat6 (signal transducers and activators of transcription) signaling molecule. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrate that BCL-6 can bind, with different affinities, to several DNA elements recognized by Stat6. Expression of BCL-6 can repress the IL-4-dependent induction of immunoglobulin (Ig) germ line epsilon transcripts, but does not repress the IL-4 induction of CD23 transcripts. Consistent with the role of BCL-6 in modulating transcription from the germ line epsilon promoter, BCL-6(-/-) mice display an increased ability to class switch to IgE in response to IL-4 in vitro. These animals also exhibit a multiorgan inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of a large number of IgE(+) B cells. The apparent dysregulation of IgE production is abolished in BCL-6(-/-) Stat6(-/-) mice, indicating that BCL-6 regulation of Ig class switching is dependent upon Stat6 signaling. Thus, BCL-6 can modulate the transcription of selective Stat6-dependent IL-4 responses, including IgE class switching in B cells.

Cutting edge: SOCS-1 is a potent inhibitor of IL-4 signal transduction.

IL-4 is an important regulator of the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of many hematopoetic cells. Many of these biological effects result from the activation of Janus kinases (JAK)1 and JAK3 and the transcription factor Stat6. Recent data suggest that members of the SOCS (suppressor of cytokine signaling) family of proteins can inhibit JAK-STAT signaling. We have examined the ability of SOCS family members to suppress IL-4 signaling, and we have found that SOCS-1 potently inhibits the activation of JAK1 kinase and Stat6 in response to IL-4. Furthermore, SOCS-1 can inhibit the induction of CD23 expression by IL-4. SOCS-2 does not inhibit induction of signaling by IL-4, while inhibition of IL-4 signaling by SOCS-3 can be detected in transient transfection systems, but not in stable cell lines. These studies implicate SOCS-1 in modulation of IL-4 signaling and suggest that SOCS-1 may play a role in regulating the immune response.

Biologic functions of the IFN-gamma receptors.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) is a cytokine that plays an important role in inducing and modulating an array of immune responses. Cellular responses to IFN-gamma are mediated by its heterodimeric cell-surface receptor (IFN-gammaR), which activates downstream signal transduction cascades, ultimately leading to the regulation of gene expression. In order to study the role of IFN-gamma in a number of immune responses and pathways, researchers have generated mice with altered patterns of IFN-gammaR gene expression. These studies, together with analyses of naturally occurring mutations of the IFN-gammaR in man, have been instrumental in elucidating the diverse functions of IFN-gamma, and are the subject of this review.

IL-4 receptor mutations.

IL-4 plays an important role in regulating immune responses. Distinct signaling pathways, including those for gene activation and cell differentiation and those for cell proliferation and protection from apoptosis, are initiated from the receptor complex for IL-4 following ligand-receptor engagement. Several advances have been made in our understanding of how distinct functions of IL-4 are mediated. Most of these studies employed artificial mutations of the IL-4-receptor alpha chain using site-directed mutagenesis and/or deletional mutation. In addition, naturally occurring mutations of the IL-4-receptor alpha chain have been identified and implicated as a genetic predisposition for allergic disorders. The results of these studies suggest a modular organization of the receptor and an independent regulation of gene activation and cell growth.

Analysis of cytokine signaling in patients with extrinsic asthma and hyperimmunoglobulin E.

BACKGROUND: Recent data suggest that the regulation of class switching to IgE by cytokines is mediated by STAT transcription factors. The induction of IgE by IL-4 and IL-13 occurs through the activation of the intracellular signal-transducing protein Stat6, whereas the inhibition of IgE class switching by interferon-y (IFN-gamma) occurs through the activation of Statl. OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that in extrinsic asthma or in cases of markedly elevated IgE (ie, hyperimmunoglobulin E [HIE]) increased levels of IgE may be associated with alterations in the cytokine levels or the activation of Stat6. METHODS: PBMCs and sera from 8 patients with extrinsic asthma (mean IgE, 285+/-100 IU/mL), 3 patients with HIE (mean IgE, 7050+/-1122 IU/mL), and 14 nonatopic control subjects (mean IgE, 112+/-28 IU/mL) were analyzed. RESULTS: The mean IL-4 level detected by ELISA was much greater in patients with HIE than control subjects (88.6+/-11.5 pg/mL vs 11.5+/-7.1 pg/mL, P = .005), and increased IL-4 levels among patients with both asthma and HIE correlated with the increased IgE levels. In contrast, IL-13 levels were not elevated. Levels of Stat6 protein present in PBMCs did not differ in the patients and control subjects. Examination of Stat6 DNA-binding activity demonstrated no activation of IL-4 signaling in patients with either HIE or acute asthma. Interestingly, evidence for the presence of B cells that have already switched to IgE was seen in PBMCs of several patients with asthma or HIE. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that (1) IgE production in asthma and HIE usually is associated with elevated levels of IL-4, but not IL-13, in the peripheral blood; (2) the increased sera IL-4 levels in asthma and HIE are not sufficient to induce Stat6 activation in PBMCs; and (3) evidence of switch recombination to epsilon may be detected in isolated cases of elevated IgE. This implies that high levels of IgE in these patients either results from B cells that have already undergone class switching, from Ig class switching that is localized to target tissues, or both.

Direct interaction of Jak1 and v-Abl is required for v-Abl-induced activation of STATs and proliferation.

In Abelson murine leukemia virus (A-MuLV)-transformed cells, members of the Janus kinase (Jak) family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases and the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) family of signaling proteins are constitutively activated. In these cells, the v-Abl oncoprotein and the Jak proteins physically associate. To define the molecular mechanism of constitutive Jak-STAT signaling in these cells, the functional significance of the v-Abl-Jak association was examined. Mapping the Jak1 interaction domain in v-Abl demonstrates that amino acids 858 to 1080 within the carboxyl-terminal region of v-Abl bind Jak1 through a direct interaction. A mutant of v-Abl lacking this region exhibits a significant defect in Jak1 binding in vivo, fails to activate Jak1 and STAT proteins, and does not support either the proliferation or the survival of BAF/3 cells in the absence of cytokine. Cells expressing this v-Abl mutant show extended latency and decreased frequency in generating tumors in nude mice. In addition, inducible expression of a kinase-inactive mutant of Jak1 protein inhibits the ability of v-Abl to activate STATs and to induce cytokine-independent proliferation, indicating that an active Jak1 is required for these v-Abl-induced signaling pathways in vivo. We propose that Jak1 is a mediator of v-Abl-induced STAT activation and v-Abl induced proliferation in BAF/3 cells, and may be important for efficient transformation of immature B cells by the v-abl oncogene.