Fact or fiction: the "5 mm Rule" in greater tuberosity fractures of the proximal humerus.

PURPOSE: The purposes of this study were 1) to assess the outcome of nonoperative management of GT fractures with > 5 mm of displacement and 2) to assess whether there is a correlation between degree of displacement and outcome. METHODS: This study was a retrospective review of consecutive low-energy GT fractures from 2011 to 2020. Radiographs from all visits were reviewed. The direction of maximal displacement was assessed. Subjects were stratified based on the amount of maximal displacement: Group 1: 0-5 mm, Group 2: 5-10 mm, Group 3: > 10 mm. Range of motion (ROM) at the time of final follow-up was assessed. The presence of persistent shoulder pain after healing was noted, as well as whether supplemental subacromial corticosteroid injection was provided as part of long-term treatment. RESULTS: A cohort of 93 fractures comprised the study group. Mean age was 62 years. Mean follow-up was 20 months. All fractures went on to union. Mean displacement was 6.2 mm. There were 43 patients in Group 1, 43 in Group 2, and 7 in Group 3. Maximal displacement was most commonly inferolateral or lateral, accounting for a combined 77% of all patients. There was no difference in final ROM between displacement groups, with at least 155 degrees of forward elevation and 45 degrees of ER in all three groups. There was no difference between Group 1 and Groups 2/3 in frequency of persistent pain or likelihood of receiving a steroid injection. CONCLUSION: Our findings do not support a discrete 5 mm displacement threshold for surgical repair of isolated greater tuberosity fractures.

Targeted Muscle Reinnervation (TMR) and Other Considerations in Upper Extremity Amputation.

Targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) is a procedure in which amputated nerves are transferred to motor branches of functionally expendable muscles, which can then serve as "biological amplifiers" of neurologic information. It is a technique that was developed with the primary intent of improving myoelectric prosthesis control in high level upper extremity amputees. Over time, TMR has been shown to confer significant benefits in terms of both residual and phantom limb pain and as such has become a powerful tool in neuroma management in amputees and non-amputees. This review first discusses general principles of amputation management in the upper extremity, including the different types of prosthetics that are available for these patients. The history, rationale, and evolution of TMR will then be outlined, followed by several relevant surgical principles. Finally, the current evidence for and against TMR will be reviewed. Robust data on the functional benefits are still needed, and future studies will continue to clarify its role in both upper and lower extremity amputees.

Clinical photographs in the assessment of adult spinal deformity: a comparison to radiographic parameters.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to reliably predict sagittal and coronal spinal alignment with clinical photographs by using markers placed at easily localized anatomical landmarks. METHODS: A consecutive series of patients with adult spinal deformity were enrolled from a single center. Full-length standing radiographs were obtained at the baseline visit. Clinical photographs were taken with reflective markers placed overlying C2, S1, the greater trochanter, and each posterior-superior iliac spine. Sagittal radiographic parameters were C2 pelvic angle (CPA), T1 pelvic angle (TPA), and pelvic tilt. Coronal radiographic parameters were pelvic obliquity and T1 coronal tilt. Linear regressions were performed to evaluate the relationship between radiographic parameters and their photographic "equivalents." The data were reanalyzed after stratifying the cohort into low-body mass index (BMI) (< 30) and high-BMI (≥ 30) groups. Interobserver and intraobserver reliability was assessed for clinical measures via intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). RESULTS: A total of 38 patients were enrolled (mean age 61 years, mean BMI 27.4 kg/m2, 63% female). All regression models were significant, but sagittal parameters were more closely correlated to photographic parameters than coronal measurements. TPA and CPA had the strongest associations with their photographic equivalents (both r2 = 0.59, p < 0.001). Radiographic and clinical parameters tended to be more strongly correlated in the low-BMI group. Clinical measures of TPA and CPA had high intraobserver reliability (all ICC > 0.99, p < 0.001) and interobserver reliability (both ICC > 0.99, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The photographic measures of spinal deformity developed in this study were highly correlated with their radiographic counterparts and had high inter- and intraobserver reliability. Clinical photography can not only reduce radiation exposure in patients with adult spinal deformity, but also be used to assess deformity when full-spine radiographs are unavailable.

Regional anesthesia for clavicle fracture surgery is safe and effective.

BACKGROUND: Historically, clavicle fracture repairs have been performed with patients under general anesthesia. However, in the past few years, the combination of an interscalene brachial plexus block and a modified superficial cervical plexus block has been described to provide adequate anesthesia for clavicle fracture surgery, with the added benefit of postoperative analgesia. In March 2013, members of our anesthesiology department began using this block with sedation for a subset of patients undergoing clavicle fracture fixation. METHODS: This study was a retrospective review of patients who underwent clavicle fracture repair at a single institution between June 2014 and November 2017. The decision on the type of anesthesia (regional vs. general) was made jointly by the patient, anesthesiologist, and surgeon. Demographic data, relevant perioperative times, and intraoperative pain medication consumption were recorded, and comparisons of these variables were made between the regional and general anesthesia groups. RESULTS: A total of 110 patients with 110 fractures were included. Of these patients, 52 received only regional anesthesia with the combined block whereas 58 received general anesthesia with an interscalene brachial plexus block. No major anesthetic-related complications were noted in any patients, and there were no cases in which regional anesthesia had to be converted to general anesthesia because of block failure. The anesthesia start time was significantly longer in the general anesthesia group (29 minutes vs. 20 minutes, P = .022), as was the total case time (164 minutes vs. 131 minutes, P < .001). Patients in the general anesthesia group required significantly more intraoperative fentanyl to be administered (207 µg vs. 141 µg, P = .002). CONCLUSION: Regional anesthesia using a combined brachial plexus and modified superficial cervical plexus block is a reliable, efficacious technique. The combined block appears to be a reasonable alternative to general anesthesia with an interscalene brachial plexus block, and it may have benefits regarding the anesthesia start time and total case time.

Surgical Site Infection After Open Upper Extremity Fracture and the Effect of Urgent Operative Intervention.

OBJECTIVES: To identify which factors are predictive of surgical site infection in upper extremity fractures, and to assess whether the timing of operative debridement influences infection risk. DESIGN: Retrospective database review. SETTING: Hospitals participating in the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) database. PATIENTS: Patients in the NSQIP database with fractures involving the upper extremity. INTERVENTION: Surgical management of upper extremity fracture, including operative debridement for open injuries. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Surgical site infection, including both superficial and deep infections. RESULTS: A total of 22,578 patients were identified, including 1298 patients with open injuries (5.7% of total). The overall wound infection rate was 0.79%. Patients with open injuries were found to have a higher incidence of infection compared with those with closed injuries (1.7% vs. 0.7%, P < 0.001). Independent risk factors for 30-day infection included open fracture diagnosis, obesity, smoking, and American Society of Anesthesiolgists class >2 (all P < 0.05). Of patients with open fractures, 79.7% were taken expediently to the operating room. The rate of infection did not differ based on whether surgery was performed expediently or not (1.8% vs. 1.1%, P = 0.431). CONCLUSIONS: Based on an analysis of the NSQIP database, the overall risk of surgical site infection following intervention for open or closed upper extremity fractures remains low. Risk factors for infection include open injury, obesity, and cigarette smoking. There was no difference in the infection rate based on the urgency of operative debridement. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Surgical Management of Scaphotrapeziotrapezoid Arthritis.

Scaphotrapeziotrapezoid (STT) arthritis occurs commonly with basal joint arthritis, but can also occur in isolation or in conjunction with other patterns of wrist arthritis, such as scapholunate advanced collapse. Surgical options depend on the specific clinical scenario encountered. Isolated STT arthritis was classically managed with arthrodesis, but is now often addressed with distal scaphoid resection (open or arthroscopic), trapeziectomy (partial or complete) and partial trapezoid resection, or implant arthroplasty. Development of postoperative dorsal intercalary segment instability is a notable concern with any of these techniques. STT arthritis in conjunction with basal joint arthritis can be managed effectively with trapeziectomy and either partial trapezoid excision or distal scaphoid excision. STT arthritis with scapholunate advanced collapse is uncommon, but can be managed with proximal row carpectomy or scaphoidectomy and four-corner fusion. If basal joint arthritis is also present, trapeziectomy can additionally be performed, but grip strength is likely to be substantially diminished.

Everything Achilles: Knowledge Update and Current Concepts in Management: AAOS Exhibit Selection.

Achilles tendon pathology is common and affects athletes and nonathletes alike. The cause is multifactorial and controversial, involving biological, anatomical, and mechanical factors. A variety of conditions characterized by Achilles tendon inflammation and/or degeneration can be clinically and histologically differentiated. These include insertional Achilles tendinopathy, retrocalcaneal bursitis, Achilles paratenonitis, Achilles tendinosis, and Achilles paratenonitis with tendinosis. The mainstay of treatment for all of these diagnoses is nonoperative. There is a large body of evidence addressing treatment of acute and chronic Achilles tendon ruptures; however, controversy remains.

Delay in Hip Fracture Surgery: An Analysis of Patient-Specific and Hospital-Specific Risk Factors.

OBJECTIVES: To empirically define a "delay" for hip fracture surgery based on clinical outcomes, and to identify patient demographics and hospital factors contributing to surgical delay. DESIGN: Retrospective database analysis. SETTING: Hospital discharge data. PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: A total of 2,121,215 patients undergoing surgical repair of hip fracture in the National Inpatient Sample between 2000 and 2009. INTERVENTION: Internal fixation or partial/total hip replacement. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Logistic regressions were performed to assess the effect of surgical timing on in-hospital complication and mortality rates, controlling for patient characteristics and hospital attributes. Subsequent regressions were performed to analyze which patient characteristics (age, gender, race, comorbidity burden, insurance status, and day of admission) and hospital factors (size, teaching status, and region) independently contributed to the likelihood of surgical delay. RESULTS: Compared to same-day surgery, each additional day of delay was associated with a significantly higher overall complication rate. However, next-day surgery was not associated with an increased risk of in-hospital mortality. Surgery 2 calendar days (odds ratio: 1.13) and 3+ days (odds ratio: 1.33) after admission was associated with higher mortality rates. Based on these findings, "delay" was defined as surgery performed 2 or more days after admission. Significant factors related to surgical delay included comorbidity score, race, insurance status, hospital region, and day of admission. CONCLUSIONS: Surgical delay in hip fracture care contributes to patient morbidity and mortality. A variety of patient and hospital characteristics seem to contribute to surgical delay and point to important health care disparities. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Blood transfusion in primary total shoulder arthroplasty: incidence, trends, and risk factors in the United States from 2000 to 2009.

BACKGROUND: Total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) may be associated with substantial blood loss, and some patients require perioperative blood transfusion. Possible blood transfusion methods include predonated autologous blood transfusion, perioperative autologous blood transfusion, and allogeneic blood transfusion (ALBT). The purposes of the present study were to assess the incidence and recent trends over time of blood transfusion in TSA and analyze patient and hospital characteristics that affect the risk of ALBT. METHODS: This study used national hospital discharge data from the National Inpatient Sample between 2000 and 2009. The data were used to generate the overall blood transfusion rate, and linear regression was used to assess trends in transfusion patterns over time. Logistic regression analysis was performed to analyze which patient and hospital characteristics independently influence the likelihood that a given patient undergoes ALBT. RESULTS: The overall blood transfusion rate (ie, the proportion of patients who received at least 1 transfusion of any kind) was 6.7%. This rate increased over time, from 4.9% in 2000 to 7.1% in 2009 (P < .001). Risk factors associated with ALBT included age, gender, race, insurance status, hospital region, and hospital annual caseload. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in overall blood transfusion rate in TSA found in the present study may be related to factors specific to TSA, such as the introduction of reverse total shoulder arthroplasty during the study period. A variety of patient and hospital characteristics contribute to the risk of undergoing ALBT.

TheT1 pelvic angle, a novel radiographic measure of global sagittal deformity, accounts for both spinal inclination and pelvic tilt and correlates with health-related quality of life.

BACKGROUND: Adult spinal deformity is a prevalent cause of pain and disability. Established measures of sagittal spinopelvic alignment such as sagittal vertical axis and pelvic tilt can be modified by postural compensation, including pelvic retroversion, knee flexion, and the use of assistive devices for standing. We introduce the T1 pelvic angle, a novel measure of sagittal alignment that simultaneously accounts for both spinal inclination and pelvic retroversion. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of the T1 pelvic angle and other established sagittal alignment measures and to correlate these parameters with health-related quality-of-life measures. METHODS: This is a multicenter, prospective, cross-sectional analysis of consecutive patients with adult spinal deformity. Inclusion criteria were adult spinal deformity, an age of greater than eighteen years, and any of the following: scoliosis, a Cobb angle of ≥ 20°, sagittal vertical axis of ≥ 5 cm, thoracic kyphosis of ≥ 60°, and pelvic tilt of ≥ 25°. Clinical measures of disability included the Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), Scoliosis Research Society (SRS)-22, and Short Form-36 (SF-36) questionnaires. RESULTS: Five hundred and fifty-nine consecutive patients with adult spinal deformity (mean age, 52.5 years) were enrolled. The T1 pelvic angle correlated with the sagittal vertical axis (r = 0.837), pelvic incidence minus lumbar lordosis (r = 0.889), and pelvic tilt (0.933). Categorizing the patients by increasing T1 pelvic angle (<10°, 10° to 20°, 21° to 30°, and > 30°) revealed a significant and progressive worsening in health-related quality of life (p < 0.001 for all). The T1 pelvic angle and sagittal vertical axis correlated with the ODI (0.435 and 0.455), SF-36 Physical Component Summary (-0.445 and -0.458), and SRS (-0.358 and -0.383) (p < 0.001 for all). Utilizing a linear regression analysis, a T1 pelvic angle of 20° corresponded to a severe disability (an ODI of >40), and the meaningful change in T1 pelvic angle corresponding to one minimal clinically important difference was 4.1° on the ODI. CONCLUSIONS: The T1 pelvic angle correlates with health-related quality of life in patients with adult spinal deformity. The T1 pelvic angle is related to both pelvic tilt and sagittal vertical axis; however, unlike sagittal vertical axis, it does not vary on the basis of the extent of pelvic retroversion or patient support in standing. Since the T1 pelvic angle is an angular and not a linear measure, it does not require calibration of the radiograph. Thus, the T1 pelvic angle measures sagittal deformity independent of many postural compensatory mechanisms, and it can be useful as a preoperative planning tool, with a target T1 pelvic angle of < 14°. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

T1 pelvic angle (TPA) effectively evaluates sagittal deformity and assesses radiographical surgical outcomes longitudinally.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review of a multicenter database of consecutive patients undergoing 3-column osteotomy for treatment of adult spinal deformity (ASD). OBJECTIVE: To rigorously develop a T1 pelvic angle (TPA) categorization paradigm and use it to assess the surgical management of patients with ASD. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: TPA, the angle between the hips-T1 line and hips-S1 endplate line, is a novel spinopelvic parameter that assesses the combined effect of a loss of lordosis on trunk inclination and pelvic retroversion. METHODS: A prospective, multicenter database of consecutive patients with ASD was queried to identify the severe deformity threshold and meaningful change values for TPA by correlation with Oswestry Disability Index. A separate multicenter, consecutive, retrospective database of patients with ASD treated with single lumbar 3-column osteotomy was then analyzed at baseline, 3-month, and 1-year follow-up. Subjects were classified into well-aligned or poorly aligned groups at 3 months on the basis of TPA. Patients "deteriorated" if they lost more than 1 meaningful change in TPA between 3 months and 1 year and had TPA more than deformity threshold at 1 year. RESULTS: The severe deformity threshold for TPA was 20° (Oswestry Disability Index > 40) and the meaningful change was 4.1° (Oswestry Disability Index change = 15). Review of the 3-column osteotomy database identified 179 patients with preoperative severe deformity; 63 were well-aligned (TPA < 15.9°) and 73 were poorly aligned (TPA > 20°) at 3-month follow-up. This newly developed TPA categorization mechanism grouped patients in a manner comparable with the Scoliosis Research Society-Schwab Classification. Subjects who were well-aligned at 3 months had less severe baseline deformity, but received more correction, than poorly aligned subjects. Four well-aligned patients and 13 poorly aligned patients deteriorated between 3 months and 1 year after surgery. CONCLUSION: TPA accounts for sagittal vertical axis and pelvic tilt and shows great promise as a classification tool. Longitudinal analysis demonstrated undercorrection among patients with more severe preoperative deformity. We propose a surgical target of 10° for TPA. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4.

Association of myelopathy scores with cervical sagittal balance and normalized spinal cord volume: analysis of 56 preoperative cases from the AOSpine North America Myelopathy study.

STUDY DESIGN: Post hoc analysis of prospectively collected data. OBJECTIVE: Development of methods to determine in vivo spinal cord dimensions and application to correlate preoperative alignment, myelopathy, and health-related quality-of-life scores in patients with cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM). SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: CSM is the leading cause of spinal cord dysfunction. The association between cervical alignment, sagittal balance, and myelopathy has not been well characterized. METHODS: This was a post hoc analysis of the prospective, multicenter AOSpine North America CSM study. Inclusion criteria for this study required preoperative cervical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and neutral sagittal cervical radiography. Techniques for MRI assessment of spinal cord dimensions were developed. Correlations between imaging and health-related quality-of-life scores were assessed. RESULTS: Fifty-six patients met inclusion criteria (mean age = 55.4 yr). The modified Japanese Orthopedic Association (mJOA) scores correlated with C2-C7 sagittal vertical axis (SVA) (r = -0.282, P = 0.035). Spinal cord volume correlated with cord length (r = 0.472, P < 0.001) and cord average cross-sectional area (r = 0.957, P < 0.001). For all patients, no correlations were found between MRI measurements of spinal cord length, volume, mean cross-sectional area or surface area, and outcomes. For patients with cervical lordosis, mJOA scores correlated positively with cord volume (r = 0.366, P = 0.022), external cord area (r = 0.399, P = 0.012), and mean cross-sectional cord area (r = 0.345, P = 0.031). In contrast, for patients with cervical kyphosis, mJOA scores correlated negatively with cord volume (r = -0.496, P = 0.043) and mean cross-sectional cord area (r = -0.535, P = 0.027). CONCLUSION: This study is the first to correlate cervical sagittal balance (C2-C7 SVA) to myelopathy severity. We found a moderate negative correlation in kyphotic patients of cord volume and cross-sectional area to mJOA scores. The opposite (positive correlation) was found for lordotic patients, suggesting a relationship of cord volume to myelopathy that differs on the basis of sagittal alignment. It is interesting to note that sagittal balance but not kyphosis is tied to myelopathy score. Future work will correlate alignment changes to cord morphology changes and myelopathy outcomes. SUMMARY STATEMENTS: This is the first study to correlate sagittal balance (C2-C7 SVA) to myelopathy severity. We found a moderate negative correlation in kyphotic patients of cord volume and cross-sectional area to mJOA scores. The opposite (positive correlation) was found for lordotic patients, suggesting a relationship of cord volume to myelopathy that differs on the basis of sagittal alignment.