Variation in a Darwin Wasp (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) Community along an Elevation Gradient in a Tropical Biodiversity Hotspot: Implications for Ecology and Conservation.

Understanding how biodiversity varies from place to place is a fundamental goal of ecology and an important tool for halting biodiversity loss. Parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera) are a diverse and functionally important animal group, but spatial variation in their diversity is poorly understood. We survey a community of parasitic wasps (Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae) using Malaise traps up a mountain in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, and relate the catch to biotic and abiotic habitat characteristics. We find high species richness compared with previous similar studies, with abundance, richness, and diversity peaking at low to intermediate elevation. There is a marked change in community composition with elevation. Habitat factors strongly correlated with elevation also strongly predict changes in the pimpline community, including temperature as well as the density of bamboo, lianas, epiphytes, small trees, and herbs. These results identify several possible surrogates of pimpline communities in tropical forests, which could be used as a tool in conservation. They also contribute to the growing evidence for a typical latitudinal gradient in ichneumonid species richness, and suggest that low to medium elevations in tropical regions will sometimes conserve the greatest number of species locally, but to conserve maximal biodiversity, a wider range of elevations should also be targeted.

Cryptic biodiversity of tropical hesperiid caterpillar-attacking parasitoid wasps: three new species of Creagrura Townes (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae, Cremastinae) from Costa Rica and Perú.

Background: We describe three new species of the previously monotypic genus Creagrura Townes from Central and South America: C.alejandromasisi sp. n. and C.rogerblancoi sp. n. from Costa Rica and C.allpahuaya sp. n. from Peru, all of which emphasise the unknown parasitoid insect diversity yet to be revealed in the tropics. New information: Host relationships of the two Costa Rican species are described in detail. In addition, it is inferred that the Creagrura wasps find and oviposit in the caterpillar when it is exposed at night, rather than when it is concealed during daylight hours.

Review of the New World genus Acrotaphus Townes, 1960 (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae), with descriptions of fifteen new species.

Acrotaphus Townes, 1960 is a moderately large New World genus of spider attacking parasitoid wasps. Previously, it comprised 11 species. The present study aims to review the genus, and includes descriptions of 15 new species: A. amajari sp. n., A. amazonicus sp. n., A. bodoquenaensis sp. n., A. cuzconus sp. n., A. dolichopus sp. n., A. homeofranklini sp. n., A. jackiechani sp. n., A. kourou sp. n., A. micrus sp. n., A. monotaenius sp. n., A. nambilloensis sp. n., A. pseudoamazonicus sp. n., A. pseudomexicanus sp. n., A. venezuelanus sp. n. and A. zampieronae sp. n.. In addition, we present new characters for the study of the genus and describe the male genitalia for the first time. An illustrated key and maps to the species of the genus are provided. Acrotaphus franklini Gauld, 1991 and A. pseudoamazonicus sp. n. were recorded from the nests of Trypoxylon (Trypargilum) lactitarse Saussure, 1867 (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae).

Pimpla Fabricius, 1804 (Ichneumonidae, Pimplinae) from Uruguay: a replacement name, new records, and an identification key to the species.

We report new faunistic records of Pimpla Fabricius, 1804 from Uruguay. The following species are reported from the country for the first time: P. albomarginata Cameron, 1846, P. caerulea Brullé, 1846, P. perssoni Gauld, 1991, and P. semirufa Brullé, 1846. In addition, we propose a replacement name for Pimpla rufipes Brullé, 1846 and provide diagnosis, digital images, and an identification key for all the Pimpla species known to occur in Uruguay.

New records of Ticapimpla Gauld, 1991 (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae) from Brazil and French Guiana, with taxonomic notes.

BACKGROUND: We report the genus Ticapimpla Gauld, 1991 from French Guiana and the species Ticapimpla amazonica Palacio et al., T. carinata Palacio et al., T. matamatae Palacio et al. and T. soinii Palacio et al. from Brazilian Amazonia. The new discoveries suggest that the genus is widely distributed in Amazonian lowland rain forests. In addition, we diagnose and illustrate the males of T. carinata and T. matamatae for the first time. Short diagnoses and layer-photos for all the Amazonian species are provided. NEW INFORMATION: The genus Ticapimpla is reported for the first time from French Guiana and the species T. amazonica, T. carinata, T. matamatae and T. soinii from Brazilian Amazonia. In addition, the males of T. carinata and T. matamatae are diagnosed and illustrated for the first time.

The Klingon batbugs: Morphological adaptations in the primitive bat bugs, Bucimex chilensis and Primicimex cavernis, including updated phylogeny of Cimicidae.

The Cimicidae is a family of blood-dependent ectoparasites in which dispersion capacity is greatly associated with host movements. Bats are the ancestral and most prevalent hosts for cimicids. Cimicids have a worldwide distribution matching that of their hosts, but the global classification is incomplete, especially for species outside the most common Cimicidae taxa. In this study, we place a little-studied cimicid species, Bucimex chilensis, within a comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Cimicidae by sequencing the genomic regions of this and other closely related species. For this study, we collected B. chilensis females from Myotis chiloensis in Tierra del Fuego, 1,300 km further south than previously known southernmost distribution boundary. We also sequenced COI regions from Primicimex cavernis, a species which together with B. chilensis comprise the entire subfamily Primiciminae. Using Bayesian posterior probability and maximum-likelihood approaches, we found that B. chilensis and P. cavernis clustered close to each other in the molecular analyses, receiving support from similar morphological features, agreeing with the morphology-based taxonomic placement of the two species within the subfamily Primiciminae. We also describe a previously unrecognized morphological adaptation of the tarsal structure, which allows the austral bat ectoparasite, B. chilensis, to cling on to the pelage of its known host, the Chilean myotis (Myotis chiloensis). Through a morphological study and behavioral observation, we elucidate how this tarsal structure operates, and we hypothesize that by clinging in the host pelage, B. chilensis is able to disperse effectively to new areas despite low host density. This is a unique feature shared by P. cavernis, the only other species in Primiciminae.

Biodiversity assessments in the 21st century: the potential of insect traps to complement environmental samples for estimating eukaryotic and prokaryotic diversity using high-throughput DNA metabarcoding 1.

The rapid loss of biodiversity, coupled with difficulties in species identification, call for innovative approaches to assess biodiversity. Insects make up a substantial proportion of extant diversity and play fundamental roles in any given ecosystem. To complement morphological species identification, new techniques such as metabarcoding make it possible to quantify insect diversity and insect-ecosystem interactions through DNA sequencing. Here we examine the potential of bulk insect samples (i.e., containing many non-sorted specimens) to assess prokaryote and eukaryote biodiversity and to complement the taxonomic coverage of soil samples. We sampled 25 sites on three continents and in various ecosystems, collecting insects with SLAM traps (Brazil) and Malaise traps (South Africa and Sweden). We then compared our diversity estimates with the results obtained with biodiversity data from soil samples from the same localities. We found a largely different taxonomic composition between the soil and insect samples, testifying to the potential of bulk insect samples to complement soil samples. Finally, we found that non-destructive DNA extraction protocols, which preserve insect specimens for morphological studies, constitute a promising choice for cost-effective biodiversity assessments. We propose that the sampling and sequencing of insect samples should become a standard complement for biodiversity studies based on environmental DNA.

The Neotropical species of Clistopyga (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae, Pimplinae). Part II: the C. isayae species group, with the description of seven new species.

The New World Clistopyga isayae species group is revised. Seven species are described as new: C. crassicaudata sp. nov., C. isayae sp. nov., C. kalima sp. nov., C. nigriventris sp. nov., C. panchei sp. nov., C. splendida sp. nov. and C. taironae sp. nov. An illustrated identification key to all species of the group is provided. The Clistopyga isayae species group is composed entirely of previously undescribed species mainly from Andean forests of tropical South America.

The genus Manota Williston (Diptera: Mycetophilidae) in Peruvian Amazonia, with description of sixteen new species and notes on local species richness.

A comprehensive study of material of the worldwide fungus gnat genus Manota Williston, sampled from the Allpahuayo-Mishana National Reserve in Peruvian Amazonia, was conducted. The following 16 species are described as new: M. aligera sp. n., M. aristoseta sp. n., M. calva sp. n., M. ciliata sp. n., M. exigua sp. n., M. digitata sp. n., M. flabellata sp. n., M. iquitosensis sp. n., M. limulata sp. n., M. micella sp. n., M. minutula sp. n., M. nuda sp. n., M. parvula sp. n., M. pauloides sp. n., M. pustulosa sp. n. and M. serrulata sp. n. In addition, the following 16 species are recorded: M. acuminata Jaschhof & Hippa, 2005, M. acutistylus Jaschhof & Hippa, 2005, M. anfracta Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. appendiculata Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. aristata Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. bisulca Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. diversiseta Jaschhof & Hippa, 2005, M. iota Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. micula Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. papillosa Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. paula Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. penicillata Jaschhof & Hippa, 2005, M. pisinna Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. quantula Hippa & Kurina, 2013, M. spinosa Jaschhof & Hippa, 2005 and M. virgata Hippa & Kurina, 2013. Altogether 67 species of Manota are now known from the Neotropical region.

The Neotropical species of Atractodes (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae, Cryptinae), I: the A. propodeator and A. altoandinus species-groups.

The Neotropical species of the cryptine genus Atractodes are studied, and four species-groups are proposed. In this paper, A. altoandinus and A. propodeator species-groups are diagnosed. The former species-group occurs from southern Mexico to Brazil and includes some of the largest Atractodes species ever found, all possessing a strongly sloped propodeum; the latter species-group is only known from the Chilean Andes and includes one of the smallest species of Atractodes, characterised by a very short and curved tergite I and short first flagellomere. Four species, A. altoandinus, A. propodeator, A. reijoi and A. verapacensis are described as new. An illustrated identification key to all species-groups and to species of the A. propodeator species-group is provided.

The Brazilian Amazonian species of Hymenoepimecis Viereck, 1912 (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae).

Six new species of Hymenoepimecis Viereck are described from Brazilian Amazonian tropical forest: H. amazonensis sp. n., H. duckensis sp. n., H. kleini sp. n., H. manauara sp. n., H. ribeiroi sp. n. and H. uberensis sp. n., and male genitalia is described for the first time for the genus. In addition, we provide an identification key, diagnosis and distributional records for Brazilian Amazonian species of Hymenoepimecis. By describing these new species we aim to draw further attention to the considerable species richness of the genus in Amazonia.

Tersilochinae of Western Amazonia (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Genus Stethantyx Townes, part 2.

In this paper we describe four new species of Stethantyx Townes (Ichneumonidae: Tersilochinae) from Ecuador and Peru characterized by the fore wing with first and second abscissae of radius meeting at right angle: S. erwini Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. radiata Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. rufispa Khalaim & Bordera, sp. nov. and S. undulata Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov. Second part of the key to species of Stethantyx occurring in Western Amazonia is given. Additionally, S. altamira Khalaim & Broad and S. aprica Khalaim & Broad are recorded from South America for the first time, and new data on distribution of S. alajuela Khalaim & Broad, S. amazonica Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, S. heredia Kha-laim & Broad, S. orellana Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, S. sinuata Khalaim & Sääksjärvi and S. trepida Khalaim & Sääksjärvi in South America are provided. Male of S. orellana is recorded for the first time.

The Peruvian Amazonian species of Epirhyssa Cresson (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Rhyssinae), with notes on tropical species richness.

Epirhyssa Cresson 1865 is a large tropical genus of the family Ichneumonidae. It is the most diverse genus of the subfamily Rhyssinae with about 118 species worldwide. In this study we conducted four long-term field inventories to review the Peruvian Amazonian species of the genus. We provide illustrations, diagnosis and an identification key to the species currently known to occur in the region, including descriptions of 10 new species. In addition, we describe the female of E. wisei Porter and the male of E. pertenuis Porter, discuss the biogeographical patterns of species richness of the genus and provide new faunistic records for Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Paraguay and Peru. The Peruvian Amazonia is, according to our results, among the most species-rich areas in the world for this genus. Some of the new species described in this work were named by the public in Finland and Peru during two innovative competitions to name these beautiful species. The aims of these competitions were to draw attention to the plethora of unknown species lurking in the shades of tropical forests and the necessity to protect these highly diverse areas.

Nine genera of Eucnemidae (Coleoptera) new to Peru, with a key to Peruvian genera.

Thirteen genera of Eucnemidae containing forty species were collected from the Iquitos region in Peru. Nine of the genera are new to the country: Rhagomicrus Fleutiaux, 1902, Adelorhagus Horn, 1890, Adelothyreus Chevrolat, 1867, Microrhagus Dejean, 1833, Dyscharachthis Blackburn, 1900, Heterotaxis Bonvouloir, 1871, Spinifornax Fleutiaux, 1926, Serrifornax Fleutiaux, 1926 and Maelodrus Fleutiaux, 1928. The previous eucnemid record from Peru contained eleven species in ten genera. Only one of the forty species caught, Entomophthalmusamericanus Bonvouloir, was previously known and described from the country. Dyscharachthis, Maelodrus and Adelorhagus are recorded from South America for the first time. Many of the collected species seem to favor white-sand forest as their habitat. Possible reasons for this are discussed. A list of eucnemids from Peru is included, containing taxa already recorded from the country and also taxa that are likely to occur there. A key to the Peruvian genera is included.

First record of Poemeniinae (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) from Peru, with description of a new species and a key to the world species of Ganodes Townes.

The subfamily Poemeniinae (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) is reported for the first time from Peru. We describe and illustrate a new species, Ganodes atayupanquii sp. n. Castillo & Sääksjärvi, which was collected from the Peruvian Andes at 1500 m. A key to the species of Ganodes Townes and new distribution records of G. wahli Díaz and G. matai Gauld are provided.

Twenty seven new species of Orthocentrus (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae; Orthocentrinae) with a key to the Neotropical species of the genus.

We describe 27 new species of parasitoid wasps of the genus Orthocentrus (Ichneumonidae: Orthocentrinae) from the Neotropical region, where previously only one species of the genus (O. insularis Ashmead) was known, and provide a key to all described Orthocentrus species of the region. Based on previous studies and additional material that we have seen from the region, describing these species is only an initial attempt to document the Neotropical orthocentrine fauna.

The neotropical species of Xanthopimpla Saussure (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae).

Xanthopimpla Saussure, 1892 is one of the largest and best studied genera of the family Ichneumonidae. It is most species rich in the Oriental and Afrotropical regions with only a few species occurring in Central and South America. The present study reviews the Neotropical species of the genus including descriptions of four new species from Amazonia and Northeast South America. We define a new species group: the amazonica species-group, to accommodate the following five species: X. amazonica Gómez, Sääksjärvi & Veijalainen, X. guianensis Gómez & Sääksjärvi sp. n., X. jussilai Veijalainen, Sääksjärvi & Broad, X. pucallpensis Gómez & Sääksjärvi sp. n. and X. vidali Gómez sp. n. The aurita species-group, which had hitherto been regarded as the only species-group in the Neotropical region, is currently represented by five species: X. allpahuaya Gómez & Sääksjärvi sp. n., X. aurita Krieger, X. craspedoptera Krieger, X. rhabdomera Townes and X. spiloptera Krieger. The Andean species X. peruana Krieger is established as an unplaced species outside of the amazonica and aurita species-groups. A key to Neotropical species-groups and species of Xanthopimpla is provided. Xanthopimpla aurita is recorded for the first time from Ecuador and Colombia and its extensive distribution is discussed. Xanthopimpla amazonica, X. craspedoptera and X. jussilai are recorded for the first time from Brazil; X. amazonica is recorded for the first time from French Guiana; X. spiloptera is recorded for the first time from French Guiana and Peru, and X. rhabdomera is recorded for the first time from Peru. 

Revision of the New World species of Erythrodolius (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Sisyrostolinae), with a key to the world species.

The genus Erythrodolius previously comprised ten species of ichneumonids: nine from Madagascar and one from Costa Rica. The current study revises the New World species of Erythrodolius including descriptions of three new species from Central America which brings the world total to 13 species: E. incompletus sp. n., E. luteus sp. n. and E. tenebrosus sp. n. A key to the world species is provided. Justification for the preference of the subfamily name Sisyrostolinae instead of Brachyscleromatinae is provided.

Tersilochinae of Western Amazonia (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). Genus Stethantyx Townes, part 1.

Sixteen species of the genus Stethantyx Townes having first and second sections of radius meeting at obtuse angle are recorded from Peru and Ecuador in Western Amazonia. Ten species, S. amazonica Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. aurantia Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. juninensis Khalaim & Bordera, sp. nov., S. loretosa Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. neopropodeator Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. orellana Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. sinuata Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. tiputinia Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., S. trepida Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov. and S. voluptaria Khalaim & Sääksjärvi, sp. nov., are described as new. Six species, previously known only from Costa Rica,           S. alajuela Khalaim & Broad, S. heredia Khalaim & Broad, S. orosia Khalaim & Broad, S. propodeator Khalaim & Broad, S. puntarenasa Khalaim & Broad and S. sanjosea Khalaim & Broad, are recorded from South America for the first time. A partial key to Western Amazonian species of Stethantyx is given.

Unprecedented ichneumonid parasitoid wasp diversity in tropical forests.

The megadiverse parasitoid wasp family Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera) is classically considered an exception to the extensively studied latitudinal diversity gradient: the majority of ichneumonid species are described from temperate regions. The gradient has been hypothesized to be dependent on the biology of the wasps, but recently questions of sampling and description biases have been raised. Here, we show with primary data that the species richness of Ichneumonidae is markedly underestimated in tropical areas and that latitudinal diversity patterns in the family remain uncharacterized. We discovered a startling 177 likely undescribed orthocentrine species with relatively low sampling effort in the forests of Central America and Amazonian Ecuador, over three times the previously known orthocentrine diversity in the world's tropics. Species accumulation curves reveal that we are just beginning to unveil the true extent of tropical orthocentrine diversity. We also found evidence for cryptic species; our DNA analysis revealed additional species not easily distinguishable using morphological characteristics. The difficulty in establishing species richness patterns of Ichneumonidae probably follows from the relative lack of taxonomic expertise and the low density of ichneumonid species throughout the landscape.