Influence of peripheral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on feed intake, body temperature and hypothalamic expression of neuropeptides involved in appetite regulation in broilers and layer chicks.

1. This study examined the expression of genes related to appetite-regulating neuropeptides in the hypothalamus of broiler and layer chicks (Gallus gallus) after intraperitoneal (IP) injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). 2. Both broiler and layer chicks received (n = 10 per group) LPS at doses of 0 and 200 µg and feed intake was measured up to 6 h after injection. In a further experiment, (n = 8 per group) mRNA abundance of some hypothalamic neuropeptides was measured 2 h after injection. The rectal temperature of each chick was measured before and 2 h post-injection. 3. Feed intake was significantly decreased by LPS from 2 h after injection and thereafter, while the rectal temperature did not change. 4. LPS decreased the expression of appetite-enhancing neuropeptides: neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) in broilers and, NPY in layer chicks. The expression of appetite-suppressing neuropeptides (corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), proopiomelanocortin (POMC) and, cocaine and amphetamine regulated-transcript (CART) was not changed in broilers, while CRF tended to decrease and POMC was significantly decreased in layers. The abundance of the cytokine tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) did not change in broilers but was decreased in layers. 5. The findings indicated that the reduction in gene expression of hypothalamic appetite-enhancing neuropeptides NPY and AgRP is responsible for anorexia caused by LPS at a dose that did not influence body temperature.

Induction of hypothalamic GABA synthetic enzymes mRNA (Gad 1 and Gad 2) expression by negative energy balance in broiler and layer chicks.

Broiler and layer chicks have been selected for higher and lower food intake and body weight gain, respectively. It has recently been reported that glutamate decarboxylase (Gad1) mRNA, a gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) synthetic enzyme gene, is a reliable proxy for GABA release. Previous studies have revealed that GABAergic system has a stimulatory role on food intake in both mammals and birds. Over the recent years, evidence has identified the presence of GABAergic neurons as either the first- or second-order neurons within the various feeding nuclei of hypothalamus of laboratory rodents. They respond to the negative energy balance representing a critical role for GABA in the regulation of food intake. In the current study, the mRNA abundance of Gad 1 and Gad 2 was measured within the hypothalamus of both broiler and layer free fed, 12 h-fasted and 12 h-fasted / 3 h refed chicks. Furthermore, the effect of intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of GABA was studied on food intake of chicks. The results indicated an increase in both Gad 1 and 2 expressions during fasting which tended to return to the baseline after refeeding. However, this increase was greater in broilers than in layers. The results also showed that ICV injection of GABA had no effect on food intake with the exception of an increase in free fed broilers. This study suggests a role for hypothalamic GABAergic system in birds that respond to negative energy balance, which seems to be more considerable in broilers than in layers.

Electron backscattered diffraction analysis of friction stir processed nanocomposites produced via spark plasma sintering.

In the present study, Spark Plasma Sintered (SPSed) aluminium matrix composites were severely deformed through Friction stir processing (FSP). Pure aluminium powders and bimodal sized Al2 O3 particles (80 nm and 25 µm) were firstly mixed by ball milling and then consolidated by spark plasma sintering. The effect of the heat input as well the bimodal particle size of the alumina on the materials' microstructure and texture development was evaluated by electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis. The EBSD analysis clearly showed that the SPSed nanocomposites possessed bimodal aluminium matrix grain structure as well as a crystallography characterised by random texture. In addition, microstructural examination revealed that the partial recrystallisation occurred during SPS for all the nanocomposites. Also, it is revealed that the Zener pinning effect of Al2 O3 nanoparticles retarded recrystallised grain growth following recrystallisation during FSP and then leading to grain refinement of the aluminium. The results revealed that the heat generated during FSP has a remarkable effect on the grain distribution as well as on the crystallographic orientation. Also, a mixture of {112} <110> shear elements and an ideal strong B/B¯ component were observed. The microstructural changes, occurred during FSP in the stir zone region for Al-Al2 O3 nanocomposites, were attributed to both the discontinuous along with the continuous recrystallisation (DDRX/CDRX). It should be pointed out that with increasing the heat input, recrystallised grains portion increased.

What is the outcome in patients with acute leukaemia who survive severe acute graft-versus-host disease?

BACKGROUND: Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) is a major complication of allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). With new promising therapies, survival may improve for severe aGVHD. OBJECTIVES: We wanted to analyze the long-term outcome in patients who survive severe aGVHD. METHODS: This study was a landmark analysis of 23 567 patients with acute Leukaemia who survived for more than 6 months after HSCT, 2002-2014. Patients alive after severe aGVHD (n = 1738) were compared to controls. RESULTS: Patients with severe aGVHD had higher non-relapse mortality (NRM) and higher rate of extensive chronic GVHD (cGVHD) than the controls (P < 10-5 ). The probability of relapse was significantly lower in the severe aGVHD group, but Leukaemia-free survival (LFS) and overall survival were significantly lower than for the controls (P < 10-5 ). Five-year LFS in patients with severe aGVHD was 49%, as opposed to 61% in controls with no or mild GVHD and 59% in patients with moderate GVHD. CONCLUSIONS: HSCT patients who survive severe aGVHD have higher risk of developing extensive cGVHD, a higher NRM, a lower relapse probability, and lower LFS than other HSCT patients. This study is a platform for outcome analysis in patients treated with novel therapies for acute GVHD.

Multifaceted community-based intervention reduces rate of BMI growth in obese Mexican-origin boys.

BACKGROUND: Latino children and youth have some of the highest rates of overweight and obesity. Early intervention is important to prevent future obesity and illness in this population. METHODS: A 3-year, multifaceted intervention was designed to reduce the rate of growth of body mass index (BMI) among Mexican-origin children. Two communities in California's agricultural Central Valley were targeted for intervention and comparison. To assess impact, anthropometric measures of participating children (N = 422) were collected and analysed at baseline and after 1 year of intervention. RESULTS: After 1 year of intervention, triceps skin-fold thickness in girls showed a significant decrease in unadjusted analysis between children in the two communities. In multivariate analysis, a reduction in BMI growth was seen among obese boys in the intervention community (ß-coefficient = -1.94, P = 0.05). Obese boys in the intervention community also had a smaller increase in waist circumference (ß-coefficient = -5.2, P = 0.04) than the comparison community. CONCLUSIONS: These early findings indicate the intervention's effectiveness for preventing BMI growth among obese boys. Longitudinal follow-up is needed to determine the sustainability of results and whether similar results extend to obese girls and overweight boys or girls.

Primary Antibody Deficiency in a Tertiary Referral Hospital: A 30-Year Experiment.

BACKGROUND: Primary antibody deficiency (PAD) is the most common group of primary immunodeficiency disorders (PID), with a broad spectrum of clinical features ranging from severe and recurrent infections to asymptomatic disease. OBJECTIVES: The current study was performed to evaluate and compare demographic and clinical data in the most common types of PAD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of the medical records of all PAD patients with a confirmed diagnosis of common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), hyper IgM syndrome (HIgM), selective IgA deficiency (SIgAD), and X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) who were diagnosed during the last 30 years at the Children's Medical Center, Tehran, Iran. RESULTS: A total number of 280 cases of PAD (125 CVID, 32 HIgM, 63 SIgAD, and 60 XLA) were enrolled in the study. The median (range) age at the onset of disease in CVID, HIgM, SIgAD, and XLA was 2 (0-46), 0.91 (0-9), 1 (0-26), and 1 (0-10) years, respectively. Gastrointestinal infections were more prevalent in CVID patients, as were central nervous system infections in XLA patients. Autoimmune complications were more prevalent in HIgM patients, malignancies in CVID patients, and allergies in SIgAD patients. The mortality rate for CVID, HIgM, and XLA was 27.2%, 28.1%, and 25%, respectively. No deaths were reported in SIgAD patients. CONCLUSIONS: SIgAD patients had the best prognosis. While all PAD patients should be monitored for infectious complications, special attention should be paid to the finding of malignancy and autoimmune disorders in CVID and HIgM patients, respectively.

Primary antibody deficiency in a tertiary referral hospital: a 30-year experiment

Background: Primary antibody deficiency (PAD) is the most common group of primary immunodeficiency disorders (PID), with a broad spectrum of clinical features ranging from severe and recurrent infections to asymptomatic disease. Objectives: The current study was performed to evaluate and compare demographic and clinical data in the most common types of PAD. Materials and Methods: We performed a retrospective review of the medical records of all PAD patients with a confirmed diagnosis of common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), hyper IgM syndrome (HIgM), selective IgA deficiency (SIgAD), and X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) who were diagnosed during the last 30 years at the Children’s Medical Center, Tehran, Iran. Results: A total number of 280 cases of PAD (125 CVID, 32 HIgM, 63 SIgAD, and 60 XLA) were enrolled in the study. The median (range) age at the onset of disease in CVID, HIgM, SIgAD, and XLA was 2 (0-46), 0.91 (0-9), 1 (0-26), and 1 (0-10) years, respectively. Gastrointestinal infections were more prevalent in CVID patients, as were central nervous system infections in XLA patients. Autoimmune complications were more prevalent in HIgM patients, malignancies in CVID patients, and allergies in SIgAD patients. The mortality rate for CVID, HIgM, and XLA was 27.2%, 28.1%, and 25%, respectively. No deaths were reported in SIgAD patients. Conclusions: SIgAD patients had the best prognosis. While all PAD patients should be monitored for infectious complications, special attention should be paid to the finding of malignancy and autoimmune disorders in CVID and HIgM patients, respectively (AU)

Antecedentes: Las inmunodeficiencias humorales primarias (PAD) es el grupo más frecuente de inmunodeficiencias primarias (IDP), y engloba un amplio espectro de características clínicas, que van desde los pacientes con infecciones graves y recurrentes a los casos asintomáticos. Objetivos: El presente estudio se realizó para evaluar y comparar los datos demográficos y clínicos de los tipos más comunes de PAD. Materiales y Métodos: Se revisaron retrospectivamente, las historias clínicas de todos los pacientes con PAD con un diagnóstico confirmado de: inmunodeficiencia variable común (CVID), síndrome de hiper IgM (HIgM), deficiencia selectiva de IgA (SIgAD),y de agammaglobulinemia ligada al cromosoma X (XLA), que fueron diagnosticados durante los últimos 30 años, en el Centro Médico de Niños, Teherán, Irán. Resultados: Se incluyeron en este estudio un total de 280 casos de PAD, englobando 125 pacientes con CVID, 32 HIgM, 63 SIgAD, y 60 pacientes con XLA. La mediana (rango) de edad al inicio de la enfermedad en la CVID, HIgM, SIgAD y XLA fue: 2 (0-46), 0,91 (0-9), 1 (0-26) y 1 (0-10) años, respectivamente. Las infecciones gastrointestinales fueron más frecuentes en los pacientes con CVID, mientras que las infecciones del sistema nervioso central lo fueron en la XLA. Las complicaciones autoinmunes fueron más prevalentes en los pacientes con HIgM, los tumores malignos en las CVID y las enfermedades alérgicas en las SIgAD. La tasa de mortalidad de CVID, HIgM y XLA fue 27,2%, 28,1% y 25%, respectivamente. No hubo mortalidad en el grupo de pacientes con SIgAD. Conclusiones: Los pacientes con SIgAD tuvieron el mejor pronóstico. Aunque todos los pacientes con PAD deben ser controlados estrechamente para evitar las complicaciones infecciosas, se debe prestar especial atención a la aparición de enfermedades malignas y autoinmunes en los pacientes con CVID y HIgM, respectivamente (AU)

BosFinder: a novel pre-microRNA gene prediction algorithm in Bos taurus.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that modulate gene expression transcriptionally (transcriptional activation or inactivation) and/or post-transcriptionally (translation inhibition or degradation of their target mRNAs). This phenomenon has significant roles in growth and developmental processes in plants and animals. Bos taurus is one of the most important livestock animals, having great importance in food and economical sciences and industries. However, limited information is available on Bos taurus constituent miRNAs because its whole genome assembly has been only recently published. Therefore, computational methods have been essential tools in miRNA gene prediction and discovery. Among these, machine-learning-based approaches are used to characterize genome scale pre-miRNAs from expressed sequence tags (ESTs). In this study, a support vector machine model was used to classify 33 structural and thermodynamic features of pre-miRNA genes. Public bovine EST data were obtained from different tissues in various developmental stages. A new algorithm, called BosFinder, was developed to identify and annotate the whole genome's derived pre-miRNAs. We found 18 776 highly potential pre-miRNA sequences. This is the first genome survey report of Bos taurus based on a machine-learning method for pre-miRNA gene finding. The bosfinder program is freely available at http://lbb.ut.ac.ir/Download/LBBsoft/BosFinder/.

Stromal cells-are they really useful for GVHD?

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have immunomodulatory effects and are increasingly being used for the treatment of acute and chronic GVHD. Although they seem immuno-privileged, they induce alloresponses, but the risk of immunization is poorly characterized. After infusion, they first reach the lungs, liver and spleen, and are then difficult to trace. Several mechanisms are involved in stromal cells suppressing alloreactivity, such as induction of regulatory T cells, but whether or not this will also affect leukemic relapse or increase infections is not known. Although several encouraging pilot studies have been published, there have been few prospective randomized trials. There may be a bias in the literature, as negative results are seldom published, and there have been few comparative studies with other immunosuppressive regimens. Most animal models have failed to show any effect on GVHD. Several questions remain to be answered for optimization of stromal cell therapy. Which source is optimal-BM, fat, cord or decidua? Can stromal cells be replaced by exosomes, which culture conditions are most appropriate and at what passage and how frequently should cells be administered? More research is required to move stromal cell therapy forward to become an established treatment for acute and chronic GVHD.

Frequency and expression of inhibitory markers of CD4(+) CD25(+) FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells in patients with common variable immunodeficiency.

Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most symptomatic primary antibody deficiency associated with recurrent infections and chronic inflammatory diseases as well as autoimmunity. CD4(+) CD25(+) FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) are critical T cell subsets for maintaining self-tolerance and regulation of immune response to antigens thus play a pivotal role in preventing autoimmunity. Thirty-seven CVID patients and 18 age-/sex-matched controls were enrolled. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were obtained from both groups, and the percentage of Tregs was calculated using flow cytometry method. The mRNA expression of Tregs' surface markers cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) and glucocorticoid-induced tumour necrosis factor receptor (GITR), which are associated with Tregs' inhibitory function, was compared between patients and controls by quantitative real-time PCR TaqMan method. The results revealed that the frequency of Tregs was significantly lower in CVID patients than normal individuals (P < 0.001). In addition, CVID patients with autoimmunity were found to have markedly reduced proportion of Tregs compared to those cases without autoimmune diseases (P = 0.023). A significant difference was seen in factor forkhead box P3 (FOXP3) expression between CVID patients and controls (P < 0.001). The mRNAs of CTLA-4 and GITR genes were expressed at lower levels in CVID patients compared to control group (P = 0.005 and <0.001, respectively). Our findings showed reduced proportion of Tregs in CVID patients together with downregulation of FOXP3 protein and diminished expression of inhibitory Tregs' markers. It could be concluded that all of these changes may be responsible for cellular immune dysregulation observed in these patients especially those with autoimmune manifestation.

Early-phase GVHD gene expression profile in target versus non-target tissues: kidney, a possible target?

GVHD is a major complication after allo-SCT. In GVHD, some tissues like liver, intestine and skin are infiltrated by donor T cells while others like muscle are not. The mechanism underlying targeted tropism of donor T cells is not fully understood. In the present study, we aim to explore differences in gene expression profile among target versus non-target tissues in a mouse model of GVHD based on chemotherapy conditioning. Expression levels of JAK-signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT), CXCL1, ICAM1 and STAT3 were increased in the liver and remained unchanged (or decreased) in the muscle and kidney after conditioning. At the start of GVHD the expression levels of CXCL9, ITGb2, SAA3, MARCO, TLR and VCAM1 were significantly higher in the liver or kidney compared with the muscle of GVHD animals. Moreover, biological processes of inflammatory reactions, leukocyte migration, response to bacterium and chemotaxis followed the same pattern. Our data show that both chemotherapy and allogenicity exclusively induce expression of inflammatory genes in target tissues. Moreover, gene expression profile and histopathological findings in the kidney are similar to those observed in the liver of GVHD mice.

Omega-3 from fish oil augments GVHD through the enhancement of chemotherapy conditioning regimen and selective FoxP3 depletion.

Omega-3 is known to enhance the effects of several chemotherapeutic agents and to exert several immunoregulatory actions In the present study, we evaluated the effects of a 21-day feeding regimen with omega-3-rich fish oil (FO) and its corresponding control, omega-6 rich corn oil (CO), on the BU-CY conditioning and the development of GVHD after BMT in mice. Before conditioning, FO, but not CO, feeding caused a significant attenuation in the number and functionality of splenic FoxP3+ T regulatory cells (Treg). FO feeding also enhanced the effects of the conditioning through severe depletion of Treg cells in the spleen and CD11b+ myeloid cells in both the BM and spleen. Consequently, FO-fed animals conditioned with BU-CY showed exacerbated GVHD following transplantation with allogeneic BM and splenic cells. In contrast, identical transplantation in CO-fed mice resulted in poor engraftment and body weight loss. Moreover, in standard-fed recipients, BMT with cells from FO-fed donors resulted in moderate GVHD and improved the survival time, whereas BMT with cells from CO-fed donors shortened the survival time and caused anemia. We conclude that food supplements should be considered in patients undergoing BMT and/or chemotherapy treatment.

Pediatric patients with common variable immunodeficiency: long-term follow-up.

BACKGROUND: Common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) is the most common form of symptomatic primary immunodeficiency disease. It is characterized by hypogammaglobulinemia, increased predisposition to infections, autoimmunity, and cancer. OBJECTIVES: This study was performed to evaluate the clinical and immunological features of a group of pediatric patients with CVID. METHODS: The study population comprised 69 individuals with CVID diagnosed during childhood. RESULTS: The patients were followed up for a mean (SD) period of 5.2 (4.3) years. The mean diagnostic delay was 4.4 (3.6) years, which was significantly lower in patients who were diagnosed recently. Children were classified according to 5 clinical phenotypes: infections only (n=39), polyclonal lymphocytic infiltration (n=17), autoimmunity (n=12), malignancy (n=7), and enteropathy (n=3). Postdiagnosis survival (10-year) was 71%. CONCLUSIONS: The high percentages of pediatric patients with CVID in Iran may be due to the considerable prevalence of parental consanguinity in the region and an underlying genetic background.

In situ biomimetic synthesis and characterization of nano hydroxyapatite in gelatin matrix.

In this work, nano hydroxyapatite (nHAp) composites were synthesized via an in situ biomimetic process at room temperature by using gelatin as a template agent. Formation of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles and the effect of biopolymer concentration on the shape and morphology of the nHAp nanoparticles were confirmed and investigated by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy (SEM and TEM). The results indicated that, the gelatin biopolymer as a template agent in the preparation batch has influences the size and morphology of the HAp nanocrystals precipitated in an aqueous solution of gelatin.

GVHD after chemotherapy conditioning in allogeneic transplanted mice.

GVHD is a major complication in allogeneic SCT. Available GVHD models are mainly based on radiotherapy-conditioning and/or immune deficient mice. GVHD models based on chemotherapy-based regimens remain poorly studied, despite 50% of all transplantations being chemotherapy based. Our aim was to develop a GVHD model using chemotherapy as conditioning. Female BALB/c (H-2Kd) were conditioned with BU-CY and transplanted with 2 x 10(7) BM and 3 x 10(7) spleen cells from either C57BL/6 (H-2 Kb) mice (allogeneic setting) or from male BALB/c to serve as a control group for regimen-related toxicity and engraftment. GVHD manifestations and histopathological changes were evaluated. Chimerism and donor T cells presence in skin, intestine and liver were studied using FACS-, FISH analysis and immunohistochemistry. Allogeneic transplanted mice developed lethal GVHD starting from day+7 with both histological and clinical signs. Donor T cells accumulated in recipient skin and intestine with GVHD progression. BM-failure, apoptosis and T-lymphocyte infiltration into target organs were significantly higher in allogeneic when compared with the syngeneic group. No toxicity or GVHD signs were observed in the syngeneic setting. We report a mouse model of GVHD using BU-CY conditioning that represents the most common myeloablative-conditioning regimen in clinical SCT. This model can be utilized to study the role of conditioning on mechanisms underlying GVHD.

The effect of administration order of BU and CY on engraftment and toxicity in HSCT mouse model.

Conditioning regimens are an important issue determining the outcome of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Less toxicity, early engraftment and no relapse are the aims of efficient conditioning. Our objective was to investigate the long-term effects of BU-CY and their administration order on the toxicity and chimerism in a mouse model of HSCT. Female BALB/c mice were treated with either BU (15 mg/kg/day x 4)-CY (100 mg/kg/day x 2) or CY-BU. Treated mice were transplanted with Sca-1+ cells from male BALB/c mice. Until 90 days after HSCT, the animals were monitored for body weight and analyzed for cellular phenotype of the thymus, spleen and BM, total chimerism, the spleen chimerism of DCs and T regulatory (Treg) cells, and hepatotoxicity. BU-CY and CY-BU treatments exerted comparable myeloablative and immunosuppressive effects. The long-term engraftment of donor cells in the BM and thymus regeneration showed the same features in both groups. However, the two regimens differed; in general, hepatotoxicity and chimerism of DC and Treg cells. In the long term, BU-CY, but not CY-BU caused a marked decrease in body weight and a significant increase in the activities of the liver enzymes, particularly aspartate amino transferase (AST). We conclude that the alteration of the administration order of BU-CY to CY-BU not only gives the same level of engraftment but also reduces the toxicity of the conditioning regimen that might be valuable specially in young patients who are undergoing HSCT.

Endometrial endothelial cells are derived from donor stem cells in a bone marrow transplant recipient.

BACKGROUND: The endometrium is a dynamic, cyclically regenerating tissue: a unique model of physiological angiogenesis in adults. However, the source of new endothelial cells (ECs) for vessel regrowth is obscure. We studied if male EC could be detected in the endometrial blood vessels of female human or mouse recipients of haematological stem cells from male donors. METHODS: Endometrial biopsies, obtained from one patient after non-myeloablative allogeneic bone marrow transplantation and two controls, were analysed by immunohistochemistry of CD34 and VEGFR2 antibodies for the immunophenotyping of EC, and FISH probes for the detection of donor cells. Chimerism was analysed using real-time PCR. The same experiment was also applied on the animal model. RESULTS: At the time of a Caesarean section in a female bone marrow transplanted patient, an average 14% of her endometrial EC were donor-derived. One year later, that figure was 10%. In contrast, none of two non-transplanted females demonstrated a mismatch in endometria at Caesarean section. In samples from female mice, harvested 40 days after a haematological stem cell transplant, a 6% average of donor-derived EC was detected. CONCLUSIONS: Bone marrow-derived endothelial progenitors contribute to the formation of new blood vessels in the endometrium.

Effects of passive smoking on common respiratory symptoms in young children.

AIM: To observe the effects of fathers' smoking on respiratory symptoms in children between the ages of 6 mo and 5 y living in Tehran during the period January to December 2001. METHODS: The caregivers of 622 children attending resident-based clinics in two university hospitals were interviewed about the respiratory illnesses incurred by the child during the previous 12 mo and the smoking habits of those living with the child. Children who lived in households in which any person, other than the father, smoked were excluded. RESULTS: The analysis included 595 children, 40.6% of whom were living in homes where fathers smoked cigarettes. About 35% of smokers admitted to unrestricted smoking at home. In children not living with a smoker, 81.6% had experienced at least one episode of upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) during the previous year and the rate increased to 95.2% in passive smokers whose fathers were not restricted from smoking in front of the children, (p-value <0.01). A similar pattern was found for otitis media and asthma (p-value <0.05 and <0.01, respectively). The average number of URTI episodes during the previous year was significantly higher in children exposed to unrestricted smoking (p <0.01). CONCLUSION: The study outlines the detrimental effects of paternal smoking on the respiratory health of children from a part of world in which this problem has not been studied previously, and highlights the importance of educating fathers to alter their smoking habits so that even if they do not stop smoking altogether, they should discontinue smoking indoors.