Methyl (2E)-2-cyano-3-(dimethyl-amino)-prop-2-enoate.

In the title compound, C(7)H(10)N(2)O(2), the dimethyl-amino group is twisted slightly relative to the acrylate fragment, forming a dihedral angle of 11.6 (1)°. In the crystal, molecules are linked via pairs of bifurcated C-H/H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming inversion dimers, which are further connected by C-H⋯N hydrogen bonds into chains along the a-axis direction.

Effects of dry heat treatments to peanut kernels on the functional properties of the defatted meal.

Dry heat treatments at 140 degrees C for 20 min or 160 degrees C for 10 min of peanut kernels significantly improved protein solubility, water and oil absorptions, foaming capacity and stability, and least gelation concentration of the defatted meal. However, heat treatments at 160 degrees C for 30 min or more than 30 min period resulted in significant decrease in these properties. Such heat treatments significantly decreased the level of albumin and globulin fraction with concomitant increase in glutelin fraction in the meal.

Pigeonpea as an important food source.

Pigeonpea is an important source of proteins, carbohydrates, B-group vitamins, and certain minerals. India contributes over 90% of the pigeonpea production in the world where it is mostly consumed as dehusked splits or dhal. In African countries and Latin America, it is mainly consumed as canned peas. In this review, world production and distribution, genetic background, and biochemical and nutritional properties, storage and processing of pigeonpea are discussed. Future research needs to improve the utilization of pigeonpea as human food are also addressed.

Tannin analysis of food products.

Phenolic substances occur primarily in fruits and vegetables and in the seeds of certain pigmented cultivars of sorghum, millets, and legumes. One of the major difficulties encountered in polyphenol research is the lack of a standard quantitative method for the analysis of phenolics that would be suitable for a wide range of seeds, forage crops, and food products and under a variety of experimental conditions. Some methods measure "total phenol", which may not be a true index of the nutritional quality of foods and thus does not distinguish polyphenols of nutritional concern from other low-molecular-weight phenols that also occur naturally in these products. Tannic acid (a hydrolyzable gallotannin) is commonly used as a "reference standard", but this may be a questionable practice since its biological properties differ from those of tannins of flavonoid origin. Polyphenols of cereals and legumes are predominantly of the latter type. Also, commercially available tannic acid has been shown to be a mixture of four phenolic compounds, the relative proportions of which vary with the samples. Thus, the choice of a suitable standard for tannin analysis is also important. The quantitative extraction of the condensed tannins from plant tissue is always difficult, since it may be complexed to a carbohydrate or protein matrix which could be quite insoluble due to a high degree of polymerization. The literature on tannin methodology is diverse and at times conflicting. Currently available methods for tannin analysis range from simple colorimetric, UV spectrophotometric, chromatographic, and enzymic to more sophisticated and expensive nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. None of these methods of analyses is completely satisfactory nor can it be applied to different food products with the same degree of success. This review covers physical and chemical methods for tannin analysis of different food products, the problems in analysis and interpretation of data, and future research needs in this area.

Chemistry and technology of green gram (Vigna radiata [L.] Wilczek).

Green gram or mung bean (Vigna radiata [L.] Wilczek) is an important food legume grown under tropical and subtropical conditions. It is an excellent source of protein and is almost free from flatulence-causing factors. Because of this, green gram seeds are preferred for feeding babies and those convalescing. The seeds contain a higher proportion of lysine than any other legume seeds. The seeds are processed and consumed as cooked whole beans or splits (dhals), sprouts, immature seeds, and flour and are used in various recipes. The proposed work will incorporate available information on nutritional composition, processing, and utilization of green gram. The results reported in the literature on the above aspects of green gram will be analyzed critically, and future research needs will be defined to improve the utilization of green gram as human food.

Biochemistry and technology of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seeds.

Chickpea is an important source of proteins, carbohydrates, B-group vitamins, and certain minerals, particularly to the populations of developing nations. India contributes over 75% of the chickpea production in the world where it is mostly consumed as dhal, whole seeds, and several types of traditional, fermented, deep fried, sweetened, and puffed products. In this review, the world production and distribution, genetic background, biochemical and nutritional quality, and developments in storage and processing technology of chickpea are discussed. Future research needs, to improve the utilization of chickpea as human food, are addressed.

Effect of protein deficiency and Tween 60 on the pharmacokinetics of butylated hydroxyanisole and metabolites in male Sprague-Dawley rats.

Radioactive 3H-butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) at dosages of 250 or 2,500 mg/kg body weight was administered to rats either orally (po) or intraperitonealy (ip) with or without 500 mg Tween 60/kg. The pharmacokinetics of 3H-BHA were evaluated in both control and protein-deficient animals. Blood or urine and feces were collected and analyzed for 3H-BHA equivalents. Using the Autoan/Nonlin69 computer program, most pharmacokinetic profiles of BHA (250 mg/kg) were fit to one-compartment open models with first-order absorption. The exception was the model for ip administration, which resulted in a two-compartment open model with first-order absorption. Increasing the dose of BHA to 2,500 mg/kg altered pharmacokinetics of BHA; no decline in blood levels was observed 48 hours post-injection. Protein deficiency and Tween 60 in combination increased the rate of absorption of BHA. Excretion of 3H-BHA and/or its metabolites in urine and feces was complete 6.5 days after administration of 2,500 mg/kg 3H-BHA.

Nutritional composition, processing, and utilization of horse gram and moth bean.

Horse gram and moth bean are the unexploited legumes of the tropics and subtropics grown mostly under dry-land agriculture. The chemical composition is comparable with commonly cultivated legumes. Like other legumes, these are deficient in methionine and tryptophan. Horse gram is an excellent source of iron and molybdenum. Comparatively, horse gram seeds have higher trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin activities and polyphenols than moth bean seeds. Dehusking, germination, cooking, and roasting have been shown to produce beneficial effects on nutritional quality of both the legumes. Both the legumes require prolonged cooking to obtain product of acceptable nature. A soak solution (1.5% NaHCO3 + 0.5% Na2CO3 + 0.75% citric acid) treatment has been shown to reduce cooking time and improve protein quality. Moth bean is mostly consumed as dhal or sprouts. The whole seeds of horse gram are generally utilized as cattle feed. However, it is consumed as a whole seed, sprouts, or whole meal by a large population in rural areas of southern India. Medical uses of these legumes have been discussed.

Freeze concentration of fruit juices.

Concentration of aqueous foods such as fruit juices, milk, beer, wine, coffee, and tea, is a major unit operation in the food industry. Technically feasible processes that are commercially available for the concentration of liquid foods include evaporation, freeze concentration, reverse osmosis, and ultrafiltration. Evaporation is considered to be the most economical and most widely used method of concentration. However, it is not suited for food products with very delicate flavors. Commercial processes for the concentration of such products by membrane separation techniques are not yet available. As compared to the conventional evaporation processes, concentration by freezing is potentially a superior and economic process for aroma-rich liquid foods. In the past, the process, however, was seldom used because of the investment cost and the considerable loss of concentrate in the withdrawn ice, and hence, the quality. Recent technological developments have minimized these two drawbacks associated with the earlier freeze concentration processes. In the coming decade, freeze concentration is seen as a potentially attractive method for the concentration of aroma-rich liquid foods, including fruit juices, coffee, tea, and selected alcoholic beverages. In this article, several aspects of the theoretical considerations behind freeze concentration of fruit juices, the development of new and cheaper designs, and commercially available freeze concentration processes are reviewed. The economics of the process and its application to several other areas of the food industry are also discussed.

Winged bean in human nutrition.

Protein calorie malnutrition is prevalent in many developing countries of the tropics and subtropics. Improvement of protein supply to meet the demand of a growing population necessitates utilization of unconventional protein sources. Winged bean, a high protein crop, is one of the important underexploited legumes of the tropics. All the plant parts, viz., seeds, immature pods, leaves, flowers and tubers are edible. Mature seeds contain 29 to 37% proteins and 15 to 18% oil. It has fairly good amounts of phosphorus, iron, and vitamin B. Essential amino acid composition of winged bean is very similar to that of soybean. The fatty acid composition is very much comparable to groundnut. It contains relatively high amounts of behenic acid and parinaric acid. The trypsin inhibitor in winged bean has been shown to be heat resistant. Other toxic factors such as hemagglutinins and cyanide have also been reported. Winged bean seeds are hard to cook. Soaking of seeds in the Rockland's soak solution containing sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, and sodium pyrophosphate reduces cooking time significantly. The potential uses of this important crop in human nutrition and future research needs are discussed.

Dry beans of Phaseolus: a review. Part 3.

Beans of Phaseolus are important food crops both economically and nutritionally, and are cultivated and consumed world wide. With ever rising costs of meats, fresh fruits, and vegetables, dry beans are expected to contribute more to the human nutrition in coming years. Traditionally, they have been referred to as "poor man's meat" and have contributed significantly to the diets of many people of several countries in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and South America. In recent years, a renewed interest in bean research in Western European countries and the U.S. is evident. In this review, certain biochemical, technological, nutritional, and toxicological aspects are discussed and the limitations and problems associated with dry beans of Phaseolus as human food are addressed.

Technology of removal of unwanted components of dry beans.

Dry beans are one of the inexpensive sources of reasonable quality proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Their underutilization has been attributed to the presence of several factors, such as proteinase inhibitors, flatus factors, tannins, phytates, phytohemagglutinins, and the beany flavor. Removal of these unwanted components promises improved utilization of dry beans for human food purposes. The current methodology of removing these factors includes several food processing techniques such as soaking, dry and moist heat treatment, filtration, germination, and fermentation. The commercial feasibility of these processes will be discussed. The current lack of knowledge about deleterious effects of the residual components (remaining after processing) will be addressed and the needs for the future will be discussed.

Nondestructive optical methods of food quality evaluation.

Quality control is an important aspect of food production and processing from the point of view of providing foods of acceptable nutritional value, and for providing safety of products. Several characteristics such as size, shape, density, maturity, moisture content, oil content, flavor, firmness, tenderness, color, defects, blemishes, etc., are routinely used in the quality control of agricultural and biological food products. Until recently, most analytical techniques used in quality control required isolation of the food component of interest. The original properties of the product are, therefore, destroyed during sample preparation and analysis. Oftentimes, such analyses are expensive, time consuming, and require sophisticated instrumentation, and hence are not suited for "on-line" quality control of food products. Recent progress in the development of instrumentation utilizing the optical properties of food products has provided several nondestructive techniques for quality evaluation. Most optical methods of nondestructive nature make use of the characteristic absorption spectra of components of interest. Such methods are highly sensitive, rapid, and reproducible, and have been successively used in routine "on-line" quality control of a large number of samples. In this article, theoretical considerations in the development of nondestructive analytical techniques based on the optical properties of several agricultural and biological products are briefly reviewed. A major emphasis is placed on quality control methods that are particularly useful in maturity and/or ripeness evaluation of food products, the detection of external and internal defects, and the subsequent development of automatic sorting machines for on-line measurement of quality.

Dry beans of Phaseolus. A review. Part 2. Chemical composition: carbohydrates, fiber, minerals, vitamins, and lipids.

Beans of Phaseolus are an important food crop both economically and nutritionally, and are cultivated and consumed worldwide. With ever rising costs of meats and fresh fruits and vegetables, dry beans are expected to contribute more to the human nutrition in coming years. Traditionally, they have been referred to as "poor man's meat" and have contributed significantly to the diets of many people of several countries in Asia, Africa, Middle East, and South America. In recent years, a renewed interest in bean research in Western European countries and the U.S. is evident. In this review, certain biochemical, technological, nutritional, and toxicological aspects are discussed and the limitations and problems associated with dry beans of Phaseolus as human food are addressed.

Chemical, biochemical, and biological significance of polyphenols in cereals and legumes.

Polyphenols in cereals and legumes have been receiving considerable attention largely because of their adverse influence on color, flavor, and nutritional quality. These compounds belong to the flavonoid and tannin groups and are mostly located in the seed coat or pericarp of the grains. The pearl millet flavonoids have been identified as C-glycosylflavones by the combined use of paper chromatography and UV spectroscopy. Although nontoxic, physiological and nutritional significance of these compounds occurring in high amounts in the pearl millet grain are still not clearly understood. In view of aesthetic quality, bleaching of the millet grains in acidic solution is recommended. A large proportion of current assays involves spectrophotometry of tannin or its chromogen and tannin-protein interaction. Sorghum and legume tannins have been characterized as condensed tannins. Several factors such as plant type, age of the plant or plant parts, stage of development, and environmental conditions govern the polyphenol contents in plants. Polyphenols are known to interact with proteins and form tannin-protein complexes leading to either inactivation of enzymes or making proteins insoluble. These are implicated in decreasing the activities of digestive enzymes, protein and amino acid availabilities, mineral uptake, vitamin metabolism, and depression of growth. Polyphenols are known to cause certain ultrastructural changes in the different parts of experimental animals. A correlation between dietary tannins and occurrence of esophageal cancer has been established. Bird resistance and seed germination in food crops have been correlated to high contents of polyphenols. The antinutritional activity of polyphenols can be reduced by removing polyphenols from the grains by chemical treatments or removing pericarp and testa by pearling. Treatment of alkaline reagents and ammonia can remove 90% of the polyphenols. Supplementation of polyphenols-rich diet with protein can alleviate the growth-depressing effect of polyphenols.