Novel variant of FBN2 in a patient with congenital contractual arachnodactyly.

Congenital contractual arachnodactyly (CCA) is a genetic connective tissue disorder that is characterized by arachnodactyly, kyphoscoliosis, marfanoid habitus, and crumpled ears. We report a case of a boy with suspected Marfan syndrome. Genetic analysis revealed c.3207_3217+9del in a heterozygote form of the fibrillin-2 (FBN2) gene. This patient was diagnosed with CCA based on his phenotype, and the pathogenicity of this variant was classified according to cDNA analysis and protein modeling.

The Cell Adhesion Activity of the Joining Peptide of Proopiomelanocortin.

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor protein of several peptide hormones, such as ACTH and ß-endorphin. Almost all of the peptide hormones in POMC have been drastically investigated in terms of their biological activities. However, the biological activity of the joining peptide region (JP) in POMC is unknown. Therefore, to explore the biological activity of JP, sequence analyses of mammalian POMC were performed. We found an -Arg-Gly-Asp- (RGD) motif in several mammalian species, such as porcine, suggesting that JP has cell adhesion activity. To validate this hypothesis, the cell adhesion activities of the synthetic porcine JP peptides were examined using 293T cells. Cell adhesions were observed in a concentration-dependent manner of the JP peptides. In addition, the JP peptide competitively inhibited cell adhesion to the POMC-coated plates. Moreover, the cell adhesion activity of the joining peptide was inhibited by the addition of EDTA, indicating that the JP peptide mediates the cell adhesion activity via a receptor protein, integrin. Interestingly, a human JP peptide, which possesses an -Arg-Ser-Asp- (RSD) sequence in place of the RGD sequence, exhibited a higher ability in the cell adhesion activity than that of the porcine JP peptide, suggesting that the cell adhesion activity of the joining peptide is developed during the molecular evolution of POMC. In conclusion, our results reveal that the joining peptide in POMC plays an important role during cell adhesion and provide useful information related to signal transduction of nerve peptide hormones derived from POMC.

A Novel Peptide Reagent for Investigating Disulfide-Coupled Folding Intermediates of Mid-Size Proteins.

Investigations of protein folding have largely involved the use of disulfide-containing proteins, since the disulfide-coupled folding of proteins allows folding intermediates to be trapped and their conformations determined. However, studies of the folding mechanisms of mid-size proteins face several problems, one of which is that detecting folding intermediates is difficult. Therefore, to solve this issue, a novel peptide reagent, maleimidohexanoyl-Arg5-Tyr-NH2, was designed and applied to the detection of folding intermediates of model proteins. BPTI was chosen as a model small protein to estimate the ability of the novel reagent to detect folding intermediates. In addition, a precursor protein (prococoonase) of Bombyx mori cocoonase was used as a model mid-size protein. Cocoonase is classified as a serine protease and has a high homology with trypsin. We recently found that the propeptide sequence of prococoonase (proCCN) is important for the folding of cocoonase. However, it was difficult to study the folding pathway of proCCN since the folding intermediates could not be separated on a reversed-phase HPLC (RP-HPLC). Therefore, to separate the folding intermediates by RP-HPLC, the novel labeling reagent was used to accomplish this for proCCN. The results indicated that the peptide reagent allowed the intermediates to be captured, separated on SDS-PAGE, and analyzed by RP-HPLC without the occurrence of undesirable disulfide-exchange reactions during the labeling reactions. The peptide reagent reported herein is a practical tool for investigating the mechanisms of disulfide-coupled folding of mid-size proteins.

The Molecular Basis of Heat-Stable Enterotoxin for Vaccine Development and Cancer Cell Detection.

Heat-stable enterotoxin (STa) produced by Enterotoxigenic E. coli is responsible for causing acute diarrhea in infants in developing countries. However, the chemical synthesis of STa peptides with the native conformation and the correct intra-molecular disulfide bonds is a major hurdle for vaccine development. To address this issue, we herein report on the design and preparation of STa analogs and a convenient chemical method for obtaining STa molecules with the correct conformation. To develop an STa vaccine, we focused on a structure in a type II ß-turn in the STa molecule and introduced a D-Lys residue as a conjugation site for carrier proteins. In addition, the -Glu-Leu- sequence in the STa molecule was replaced with a -Asp-Val- sequence to decrease the toxic activity of the peptide to make it more amenable for use in vaccinations. To solve several issues associated with the synthesis of STa, such as the formation of non-native disulfide isomers, the native disulfide pairings were regioselectively formed in a stepwise manner. A native form or topological isomer of the designed STa peptide, which possesses a right-handed or a left-handed spiral structure, respectively, were synthesized in high synthetic yields. The conformation of the synthetic STa peptide was also confirmed by CD and NMR spectroscopy. To further utilize the designed STa peptide, it was labeled with fluorescein for fluorescent detection, since recent studies have also focused on the use of STa for detecting cancer cells, such as Caco-2 and T84. The labeled STa peptide was able to specifically and efficiently detect 293T cells expressing the recombinant STa receptor (GC-C) protein and Caco-2 cells. The findings reported here provide an outline of the molecular basis for using STa for vaccine development and in the detection of cancer cells.

Degradation-Suppressed Cocoonase for Investigating the Propeptide-Mediated Activation Mechanism.

Cocoonase is folded in the form of a zymogen precursor protein (prococoonase) with the assistance of the propeptide region. To investigate the role of the propeptide sequence on the disulfide-coupled folding of cocoonase and prococoonase, the amino acid residues at the degradation sites during the refolding and auto-processing reactions were determined by mass spectrometric analyses and were mutated to suppress the numerous degradation reactions that occur during the reactions. In addition, the Lys8 residue at the propeptide region was also mutated to estimate whether the entire sequence is absolutely required for the activation of cocoonase. Finally, a degradation-suppressed [K8D,K63G,K131G,K133A]-proCCN protein was prepared and was found to refold readily without significant degradation. The results of an enzyme assay using casein or Bz-Arg-OEt suggested that the mutations had no significant effect on either the enzyme activity or the protein conformation. Thus, we, herein, provide the non-degradative cocoonase protein to investigate the propeptide-mediated protein folding of the molecule. We also examined the catalytic residues using the degradation-suppressed cocoonase. The point mutations at the putative catalytic residues in cocoonase resulted in the loss of catalytic activity without any secondary structural changes, indicating that the mutated residues play a role in the catalytic activity of this enzyme.

The propeptide sequence assists the correct folding required for the enzymatic activity of cocoonase.

Cocoonase, a protein that is produced by the silkworm (Bombyx mori), is thought to specifically digest the sericin protein of the cocoon and has a high homology with trypsin. Similar to trypsin, cocoonase is folded as an inactive precursor protein which is activated by releasing the propeptide moiety. However, the mechanism responsible for the activation of its catalytic structure has not yet been determined in detail. Therefore, to investigate the activation and folding mechanism of cocoonase, recombinant cocoonase (CCN) and prococoonase (proCCN) were over-expressed in E. coli cells. Both recombinant proteins (proCCN and CCN) were expressed as inclusion bodies in E. coli cells and their folding was examined under several sets of conditions. After the refolding reactions, both of the recombinant proteins were present as the oxidized soluble forms. The proCCN protein was then auto-processed to release the propeptide region for activation. Interestingly, the CCN (CCN∗) derived from the refolded proCCN showed a much stronger protease activity than the refolded CCN from the reduced CCN in a protease assay using Bz-Arg-OEt as a substrate. In addition, the secondary structure of the refolded CCN protein was similar to that of the CCN∗ protein, as evidenced by CD measurements. These results suggest that the CCN protein becomes trapped in a molten globule-like state without the assistance of the propeptide region during the folding process. We therefore conclude that the propeptide region of CCN kinetically accelerates the folding of CCN to adopt the correct conformation of cocoonase at the final step of the folding pathway.

NMR resonance assignments of mouse lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase/prostaglandin J2 complex.

Lipocalin-type prostaglandin (PG) D synthase (L-PGDS) catalyzes the isomerization of PGH2 to produce PGD2, an endogenous somenogen, in the brains of various mammalians. We recently reported that various other PGs also bind to L-PGDS, suggesting that it could serve as an extracellular carrier for PGs. Although the solution and crystal structure of L-PGDS has been determined, as has the structure of L-PGDS complexed PGH2 analog, a structural analysis of L-PGDS complexed with other PGs is needed in order to understand the mechanism responsible for the PG trapping. Here, we report the nearly complete 1H, 13C, and 15N backbone and side chain resonance assignments of the L-PGDS/PGJ2 complex and the binding site for PGJ2 on L-PGDS.

Substrate-induced product-release mechanism of lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase.

Prostaglandin D2 (PGD2), an endogenous somnogen, is a unique PG that is secreted into the cerebrospinal fluid. PGD2 is a relatively fragile molecule and should be transported to receptors localized in the basal forebrain without degradation. However, it remains unclear how PGD2 is stably carried to such remote receptors. Here, we demonstrate that the PGD2-synthesizing enzyme, Lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase (L-PGDS), binds not only its substrate PGH2 but also its product PGD2 at two distinct binding sites for both ligands. This behaviour implys its PGD2 carrier function. Nevertheless, since the high affinity (Kd = âˆ¼0.6 µM) of PGD2 in the catalytic binding site is comparable to that of PGH2, it may act as a competitive inhibitor, while our binding assay exhibits only weak inhibition (Ki = 189 µM) of the catalytic reaction. To clarify this enigmatic behavior, we determined the solution structure of L-PGDS bound to one substrate analog by NMR and compared it with the two structures: one in the apo form and the other in substrate analogue complex with 1:2 stoichiometry. The structural comparisons showed clearly that open or closed forms of loops at the entrance of ligand binding cavity are regulated by substrate binding to two sites, and that the binding to a second non-catalytic binding site, which apparently substrate concentration dependent, induces opening of the cavity that releases the product. From these results, we propose that L-PGDS is a unique enzyme having a carrier function and a substrate-induced product-release mechanism.

Chemical Digestion of the -Asp-Cys- Sequence for Preparation of Post-translationally Modified Proteins.

Numerous studies of native proteins have been reported on protein folding in this half century. Recently, post-translationally modified proteins are also focused on protein folding. However, it is still difficult to prepare such types of proteins because it requires not only the chemical but also the recombinant techniques. Native chemical ligation (NCL) is a powerful technique for producing target proteins when combined with recombinant techniques, such as expressed protein ligation (EPL). NCL basically requires an N-terminal peptide with a thioester and a C-terminal peptide which should possess a Cys residue at the N-terminus. Numerous efforts have been made to prepare N-terminal peptides carrying a thioester or a derivative thereof. However, a method for preparing C-terminal Cys-peptides with post-translational modifications has not been well developed, making it difficult to prepare such C-terminal Cys-peptides, except for chemical syntheses or enzymatic digestion. We report here on the development of a convenient technique that involves acid hydrolysis at the -Asp-Cys- sequence, to effectively obtain a C-terminal peptide fragment that can be used for any protein synthesis when combined with EPL, even under denatured conditions. Thus, this chemical digestion strategy permits the NCL strategy to be dramatically accelerated for protein syntheses in which post-translational modifications, such as glycosylation, phosphorylation, etc. are involved. In addition, this method should be useful to prepare the post-translationally modified proteins for protein folding.

Topological Regulation of the Bioactive Conformation of a Disulfide-Rich Peptide, Heat-Stable Enterotoxin.

Heat-stable enterotoxin (STa) produced by enterotoxigenic E. coli causes acute diarrhea and also can be used as a specific probe for colorectal cancer cells. STa contains three intra-molecular disulfide bonds (C1-C4, C2-C5, and C3-C6 connectivity). The chemical synthesis of STa provided not only the native type of STa but also a topological isomer that had the native disulfide pairings. Interestingly, the activity of the topological isomer was approximately 1/10-1/2 that of the native STa. To further investigate the bioactive conformation of this molecule and the regulation of disulfide-coupled folding during its chemical syntheses, we examined the folding mechanism of STa that occurs during its chemical synthesis. The folding intermediate of STa with two disulfide bonds (C1-C4 and C3-C6) and two Cys(Acm) residues, the precursor peptide, was treated with iodine to produce a third disulfide bond under several conditions. The topological isomer was predominantly produced under all conditions tested, along with trace amounts of the native type of STa. In addition, NMR measurements indicated that the topological isomer has a left-handed spiral structure similar to that of the precursor peptide, while the native type of STa had a right-handed spiral structure. These results indicate that the order of the regioselective formation of disulfide bonds is important for the regulation of the final conformation of disulfide-rich peptides in chemical synthesis.

PPCS: A Progressive Popularity-Aware Caching Scheme for Edge-Based Cache Redundancy Avoidance in Information-Centric Networks.

This article proposes a novel chunk-based caching scheme known as the Progressive Popularity-Aware Caching Scheme (PPCS) to improve content availability and eliminate the cache redundancy issue of Information-Centric Networking (ICN). Particularly, the proposal considers both entire-object caching and partial-progressive caching for popular and non-popular content objects, respectively. In the case that the content is not popular enough, PPCS first caches initial chunks of the content at the edge node and then progressively continues caching subsequent chunks at upstream Content Nodes (CNs) along the delivery path over time, according to the content popularity and each CN position. Therefore, PPCS efficiently avoids wasting cache space for storing on-path content duplicates and improves cache diversity by allowing no more than one replica of a specified content to be cached. To enable a complete ICN caching solution for communication networks, we also propose an autonomous replacement policy to optimize the cache utilization by maximizing the utility of each CN from caching content items. By simulation, we show that PPCS, utilizing edge-computing for the joint optimization of caching decision and replacement policies, considerably outperforms relevant existing ICN caching strategies in terms of latency (number of hops), cache redundancy, and content availability (hit rate), especially when the CN's cache size is small.

Crystal structure of the dog allergen Can f 6 and structure-based implications of its cross-reactivity with the cat allergen Fel d 4.

Several dog allergens cause allergic reactions in humans worldwide. Seven distinct dog allergens, designated Canis familiaris allergen 1 to 7 (Can f 1-Can f 7), have been identified thus far. Can f 6 shows high sequence similarity and cross-reactivity with Fel d 4 and Equ c 1, major cat and horse allergens, respectively. This study was conducted on the allergenic epitopes of Can f 6 based on its structural characterization. We demonstrated that sera from 18 out of 38 (47%) dog-sensitized patients reacted to recombinant Can f 6 protein (rCan f 6). We then determined the crystal structure of rCan f 6 by X-ray crystallography, which exhibited a conserved tertiary structural architecture found in lipocalin family proteins. Based on the tertiary structure and sequence similarities with Fel d 4 and Equ c 1, we predicted three IgE-recognizing sites that are possibly involved in cross-reactivity. Substituting three successive amino acids in these sites to triple alanine decreased IgE reactivity to the allergen. However, the degree of reduction in IgE reactivity largely depended on the site mutated and the serum used, suggesting that Can f 6 is a polyvalent allergen containing multiple epitopes and Can f 6-reactive sera contain varied amounts of IgE recognising individual Can f 6 epitopes including those predicted in this study. We also demonstrated that the predicted epitopes are partly involved in IgE cross-reactivity to Fel d 4. Interestingly, the effect of the mutation depended on whether the protein was structured or denatured, indicating that the bona fide tertiary structure of Can f 6 is essential in determining its IgE epitopes.

N-terminal HCV core protein fragment decreases 20S proteasome activity in the presence of PA28γ.

The Hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein plays a crucial role in the development of chronic liver diseases such as chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Its involvement in these diseases is reportedly abolished by a knockout of the proteasome activator PA28γ gene in transgenic mice, suggesting an interaction between the core protein and the PA28γ-proteasome system. This study found a direct interaction between the N-terminal 1-71 fragment of HCV core protein (Core71) and PA28γ in vitro, and that this interaction was found to enhance PA28γ-20S proteasome complex formation. While 20S proteasome activity was increased by PA28γ, it was significantly reduced by Core71 attachment in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggest that the Core-PA28γ interaction has an important role in regulating 20S proteasome activity and furthers our understanding of the pathogenesis of HCV.

Thermodynamic and NMR analyses of NADPH binding to lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase.

Lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase (L-PGDS) is one of the most abundant proteins in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) with dual functions as a prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) synthase and a transporter of lipophilic ligands. Recent studies revealed that L-PGDS plays important roles in protecting against various neuronal diseases induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, the molecular mechanisms of such protective actions of L-PGDS remain unknown. In this study, we conducted thermodynamic and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses, and demonstrated that L-PGDS binds to nicotinamide coenzymes, including NADPH, NADP(+), and NADH. Although a hydrophilic ligand is not common for L-PGDS, these ligands, especially NADPH showed specific interaction with L-PGDS at the upper pocket of its ligand-binding cavity with an unusually bifurcated shape. The binding affinity of L-PGDS for NADPH was comparable to that previously reported for NADPH oxidases and NADPH in vitro. These results suggested that L-PGDS potentially attenuates the activities of NADPH oxidases through interaction with NADPH. Given that NADPH is the substrate for NADPH oxidases that play key roles in neuronal cell death by generating excessive ROS, these results imply a novel linkage between L-PGDS and ROS.

Chemical methods for producing disulfide bonds in peptides and proteins to study folding regulation.

Disulfide bonds play a critical role in the folding of secretory and membrane proteins. Oxidative folding reactions of disulfide bond-containing proteins typically require several hours or days, and numerous misbridged disulfide isomers are often observed as intermediates. The rate-determining step in refolding is thought to be the disulfide-exchange reaction from nonnative to native disulfide bonds in folding intermediates, which often precipitate during the refolding process because of their hydrophobic properties. To overcome this, chemical additives or a disulfide catalyst, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), are generally used in refolding experiments to regulate disulfide-coupled peptide and protein folding. This unit describes such methods in the context of the thermodynamic and kinetic control of peptide and protein folding, including (1) regulation of disulfide-coupled peptides and protein folding assisted by chemical additives, (2) reductive unfolding of disulfide-containing peptides and proteins, and (3) regulation of disulfide-coupled peptide and protein folding using PDI.

Chemical methods and approaches to the regioselective formation of multiple disulfide bonds.

Disulfide-bond formation plays an important role in the stabilization of the native conformation of peptides and proteins. In the case of multidisulfide-containing peptides and proteins, numerous folding intermediates are produced, including molecules that contain non-native and native disulfide bonds during in vitro folding. These intermediates can frequently be trapped covalently during folding and subsequently analyzed. The structural characterization of these kinetically trapped disulfide intermediates provides a clue to understanding the oxidative folding pathway. To investigate the folding of disulfide-containing peptides and proteins, in this unit, chemical methods are described for regulating regioselective disulfide formation (1) by using a combination of several types of thiol protecting groups, (2) by incorporating unique SeCys residues into a protein or peptide molecule, and (3) by combining with post-translational modification.

¹H, ¹³C, and ¹5N resonance assignments of mouse lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase/substrate analog complex.

Lipocalin-type Prostaglandin D synthase (L-PGDS) acts as the PGD2-synthesizing enzyme in the brain of various mammalian species. It belongs to the lipocalin superfamily and is the first member of this family to be recognized as an enzyme. Although the solution and crystal structure of L-PGDS has been determined to understand the molecular mechanism of catalytic reaction, the structural analysis of L-PGDS in complex with its substrate remains to be performed. Here, we present the nearly complete assignment of the backbone and side chain resonances of L-PGDS/substrate analog (U-46619) complex. This study lays the essential basis for further understanding the substrate recognition mechanism of L-PGDS.

Folding of peptides and proteins: role of disulfide bonds, recent developments.

Disulfide-containing proteins are ideal models for studies of protein folding as the folding intermediates can be observed, trapped, and separated by HPLC during the folding reaction. However, regulating or analyzing the structures of folding intermediates of peptides and proteins continues to be a difficult problem. Recently, the development of several techniques in peptide chemistry and biotechnology has resulted in the availability of some powerful tools for studying protein folding in the context of the structural analysis of native, mutant proteins, and folding intermediates. In this review, recent developments in the field of disulfide-coupled peptide and protein folding are discussed, from the viewpoint of chemical and biotechnological methods, such as analytical methods for the detection of disulfide pairings, chemical methods for disulfide bond formation between the defined Cys residues, and applications of diselenide bonds for the regulation of disulfide-coupled peptide and protein folding.

Effects of positively charged redox molecules on disulfide-coupled protein folding.

In vitro folding of disulfide-containing proteins is generally regulated by redox molecules, such as glutathione. However, the role of the cross-disulfide-linked species formed between the redox molecule and the protein as a folding intermediate in the folding mechanism is poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the effect of the charge on a redox molecule on disulfide-coupled protein folding. Several types of aliphatic thiol compounds including glutathione were examined for the folding of disulfide-containing-proteins, such as lysozyme and prouroguanylin. The results indicate that the positive charge and its dispersion play a critical role in accelerating disulfide-coupled protein folding.

A chemical method for investigating disulfide-coupled peptide and protein folding.

Investigations of protein folding have largely involved studies using disulfide-containing proteins, as disulfide-coupled folding of proteins permits the folding intermediates to be trapped and their conformations determined. Over the last decade, a combination of new biotechnical and chemical methodology has resulted in a remarkable acceleration in our understanding of the mechanism of disulfide-coupled protein folding. In particular, expressed protein ligation, a combination of native chemical ligation and an intein-based approach, permits specifically labeled proteins to be easily produced for studies of protein folding using biophysical methods, such as NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. A method for regio-selective formation of disulfide bonds using chemical procedures has also been established. This strategy is particularly relevant for the study of disulfide-coupled protein folding, and provides us not only with the native conformation, but also the kinetically trapped topological isomer with native disulfide bonds. Here we review recent developments and applications of biotechnical and chemical methods to investigations of disulfide-coupled peptide and protein folding. Chemical additives designed to accelerate correct protein folding and to avoid non-specific aggregation are also discussed.