Socio-economic burden of TB and its impact on child contacts in The Gambia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the social impact of adult TB on child household contacts living in the Greater Banjul Area, The Gambia. METHODS: This was a prospective observational cohort study among adults (≥18 years) starting treatment for drug-susceptible pulmonary TB between June 2019 and July 2021 who reported having at least one child household contact. We collected data from 51 adults and 180 child contacts at the start of TB treatment (baseline) and again at 6 months of treatment. Participants were asked about expenses for school fees, healthcare, festivities and food security of child contacts. RESULTS: While school attendance of the child contacts remained largely unaffected, there was a significant drop in school performance at 6 months (P < 0.001). Furthermore, child contacts faced significant food insecurity in terms of food quantity and variety available, with up to a four-fold increase in some instances at 6 months compared to baseline (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Child contacts face a potential decline in school performance and risk of food insecurity. While a plethora of work is being undertaken to alleviate costs of care for TB patients, further emphasis is needed to ensure educational and social prosperity for child contacts, as adults with TB have socio-economic implications for the wider household.

OBJECTIF: Déterminer l'impact social de la TB de l'adulte sur les contacts familiaux de l'enfant vivant dans la région du Grand Banjul, en Gambie. MÉTHODES: Il s'agissait d'une étude de cohorte observationnelle prospective auprès d'adultes (≥18 ans) commençant un traitement contre la TB pulmonaire sensible aux médicaments entre juin 2019 et juillet 2021 et qui ont déclaré avoir au moins un contact domestique avec un enfant. Nous avons recueilli des données auprès de 51 adultes et 180 enfants contacts au début du traitement contre la TB, puis à nouveau après 6 mois de traitement. Les participants ont été interrogés sur les dépenses liées aux frais de scolarité, aux soins de santé, aux célébrations et à la sécurité alimentaire des enfants contacts. RÉSULTATS: Alors que la fréquentation scolaire des enfants contacts n'a pratiquement pas été affectée, on a constaté une baisse significative des résultats scolaires 6 mois plus tard (P < 0,001). Par ailleurs, les enfants contacts ont été confrontés à une insécurité alimentaire importante en termes de quantité et de variété de nourriture disponible, avec une augmentation d'au moins quatre fois après le traitement de la TB (P < 0,001). CONCLUSION: Les enfants contacts sont confrontés à une baisse potentielle de leurs résultats scolaires et à un risque d'insécurité alimentaire. Alors qu'une multitude de travaux sont entrepris pour réduire les coûts des soins pour les patients atteints de TB, il est nécessaire de mettre davantage l'accent sur la prospérité éducative et sociale des enfants contacts, étant donné que les adultes atteints de TB ont des implications socio-économiques pour l'ensemble du ménage.

The household economic burden of drug-susceptible TB diagnosis and treatment in The Gambia.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the costs and catastrophic costs incurred by drug-susceptible (DS) pulmonary TB patients in The Gambia.METHODS: This observational study collected cost and socio-economic data using a micro-costing approach from the household perspective from 244 adult DS-TB patients with pulmonary TB receiving treatment through the national treatment programme in The Gambia. We used data collected between 2017 and 2020 using an adapted version of the WHO generic patient cost survey instrument to estimate costs and the proportion of patients experiencing catastrophic costs (≥20% of household income).RESULTS: The mean total cost of the TB episode was $104.11 (2018 USD). Direct costs were highest before treatment ($22.93). Indirect costs accounted for over 50% of the entire episode costs. Using different income estimation approaches and catastrophic cost thresholds, 0.4-75% of participants encountered catastrophic costs, showing the variability of results given the different assumptions we utilised.CONCLUSIONS: We show that despite the benefits of free TB care and treatment, DS-TB patients still incur substantial direct and indirect costs, and cases of impoverishing expenditure varied vastly depending on the income estimation approaches used.

Adult weight management across the community: population-level impact of the LOSE IT to WIN IT challenge.

Objective: Excess body weight negatively impacts health, but there are few evaluations of low-intensity weight management challenge programs in defined populations. This study examined weight change in adults who participated in the LOSE IT to WIN IT (LIWI) health challenge in a US community. The community-level impact on body mass index was also explored. Methods: Body weight was analysed over 1 year in the cohort of LIWI enrolees, stratified by participants who were healthy weight or overweight/obese at baseline. Secondarily, a multiple cross-sectional analysis compared the 2.5-year trends in body mass index between community adults who did vs. did not participate in LIWI. Results: LOSE IT to WIN IT participants who were overweight/obese lost a mean (95% confidence interval) 1.6 (1.2, 2.0) kg (~2%) over 1 year (p < 0.001), whereas healthy weight participants lost 0.7 (0.3, 1.1) kg. Across the community, LIWI participants and non-participants both gained 0.4 kg m-2 over the 2.5-year study period (p = 0.884). Conclusions: LOSE IT to WIN IT was modestly effective among enrolees, resulting in a small weight loss of 2% over 1 year among those who were overweight/obese. However, LIWI did not impact weight gain in the community. To slow such community-level weight gain trends, weight management challenges must reach larger fractions of the populations that they target.

Identifying children with tuberculosis among household contacts in The Gambia.

SETTING: Greater Banjul Area of the Gambia. OBJECTIVES: To identify co-prevalent tuberculosis (TB) among child contacts of adults with smear-positive TB. DESIGN: Child contacts aged <15 years in the immediate household and compound were prospectively enrolled and evaluated for TB disease using screening questionnaires and the tuberculin skin test (TST). Symptomatic and/or TST-positive (10 mm) contacts were further investigated. RESULTS: Of 4042 child contacts who underwent symptom screening and TST, 3339 (82.6%) were diagnosed as TB-exposed but not infected, 639 (15.8%) were latently infected and 64 (1.6%) had co-prevalent TB. Of the 64 TB cases, 50 (78.1%) were from within the immediate household of the index case, and 14 (21.9%) from within the same compound. Of the 27 asymptomatic but TST-positive children diagnosed with TB, 7 were microbiologically confirmed. The median age of the TB cases was 4.4 years (interquartile range 1.9-6.9); 53.1% were aged <5 years. Of the 4042 child contacts, 206 (5%) slept in the same bed as the index case; 28.1% of all TB cases occurred in this group. Symptom screening alone would have detected only 57.8% of the co-prevalent cases. CONCLUSION: In our community setting, if contact tracing is restricted to symptom screening and immediate households only, nearly half of all co-prevalent TB disease in child contacts would be missed.

Isoniazid preventive treatment among child contacts of adults with smear-positive tuberculosis in The Gambia.

Setting: Greater Banjul area of The Gambia. Objectives: To evaluate uptake, adherence and completion of treatment among tuberculosis (TB) exposed children in The Gambia when isoniazid preventive treatment (IPT) is delivered at home Design: Child (age <5 years) contacts of adults with smear-positive TB were prospectively enrolled. Following symptom screening, tuberculin skin testing and clinical evaluation where indicated, those without disease were placed on daily isoniazid, provided monthly at home. Adherence was assessed by pill counts and IsoScreen™ urine test. Results: Of 404 contacts aged <5 years, 368 (91.1%) were offered IPT. Of the 328 (89.4%) for whom consent was received and who commenced IPT, 18 (5.5%) dropped out and 310 (94.5%) remained on IPT to the end of the 6-month regimen. Altogether, 255/328 children (77.7%, 95%CI 73.2-82.2) completed all 6 months, with good adherence. The IsoScreen test was positive in 85.3% (435/510) of all tests among those defined as having good adherence by pill count and in 16% (8/50) of those defined as having poor adherence (P < 0.001). A cascade of care analysis showed an overall completion rate with good adherence of 61% for all child contacts. Conclusion: Home-delivered IPT among child contacts of adults with smear-positive TB in The Gambia achieved verifiable high uptake and adherence rates. System rather than patient factors are likely to determine the success of IPT at national level.

Contexte : Région du Grand Banjul en Gambie.Objectifs : Evaluer la couverture, l'adhésion et l'achèvement du traitement parmi des enfants exposés à la tuberculose (TB) en Gambie quand le traitement préventif par isoniazide (TPI) est donné à domicile.Schéma : Les enfants âgés de <5 ans, contacts d'adultes atteints de TB à frottis positif, ont été enrôlés de manière prospective. Après dépistage sur les symptômes, test cutané à la tuberculine et évaluation clinique quand cela était indiqué, les enfants non malades ont été mis sous isoniazide, fourni une fois par mois à domicile. L'adhésion a été évaluée par un comptage des comprimés et par un test urinaire IsoScreen™.Résultats : Sur 404 contacts âgés de <5 ans, 368 (91,1%) ont été invités à bénéficier du TPI, et 328 (89,4%) ont consenti et commencé le TPI. Sur ces 328 enfants, 18 (5,5%) ont abandonné et 310 (94,5%) sont restés sous TPI jusqu'à la fin du 6e mois. Au total, 255/328 enfants (77,7% ; IC95% 73,2­82,2) ont achevé les 6 mois de traitement avec une bonne adhésion. Le test IsoScreen a été positif chez 85,3% (435/510) de tous les tests parmi ceux définis comme ayant une bonne adhésion par le comptage des comprimés et chez 16% (8/50) de ceux définis comme ayant une adhésion médiocre (P < 0,001). L'analyse de la « cascade des soins ¼ a montré, pour tous les enfants contacts, un taux de bonne adhésion d'ensemble de 61%.Conclusion: L'administration à domicile du TPI à des enfants contacts d'adultes atteints de TB à frottis positif en Gambie a abouti à une bonne couverture et à un bon taux d'adhésion, tous deux vérifiables. Ce sont les facteurs de système plutôt que ceux liés au patient qui sont susceptibles de déterminer le succès du TPI au niveau national.

Marco de referencia: La zona del Gran Banjul en Gambia.Objetivos: Evaluar la aceptación del tratamiento preventivo con isoniazida (TPI), su cumplimiento y su compleción por parte de los niños expuestos en Gambia, cuando se suministra el tratamiento en los hogares.Método: Se incluyeron en el estudio de manera prospectiva los niños menores de 5 años de edad que eran contactos de un adulto con diagnóstico de tuberculosis (TB) y baciloscopia positiva. Luego de la detección sistemática a partir de los síntomas, se practicaron la prueba cutánea de la tuberculina y la evaluación clínica cuando estaban indicadas; en caso de ausencia de enfermedad activa se inició el tratamiento diario con isoniazida, la cual se suministraba en el hogar cada mes. Se evaluó el cumplimiento en función del recuento de los comprimidos y la prueba IsoScreen™ en muestras de orina.Resultados: En los 404 contactos menores de 5 años de edad, se ofreció el TPI a 368 niños (91,1%) y 328 lo aceptaron y comenzaron a recibirlo (89,4%). De este grupo, 18 niños abandonaron el tratamiento (5,5%) y 310 recibían aun el medicamento al final del 6 mes (94,5%). De los 328 niños, 255 terminaron los 6 meses de tratamiento, con un cumplimiento satisfactorio (77,7%; IC del 95% de 73,2 hasta 82,2). La prueba IsoScreen fue positiva en el 85,3% (435/510) de los casos definidos con cumplimiento adecuado según el recuento de comprimidos y en el 16% (8/50) de los casos cuyo cumplimiento se consideró deficiente (P < 0,001). El análisis de la trayectoria asistencial reveló que en todos los contactos la tasa global de compleción con cumplimiento satisfactorio fue 61%.Conclusión: El TPI suministrado en el hogar a los niños que son contactos de un adulto con diagnóstico de TB y baciloscopia positiva alcanza altas tasas de aceptación y de cumplimiento que se pueden verificar. Los factores que determinan el éxito del TPI a escala nacional dependen del sistema de salud y no del paciente.

Contribution of Xpert® MTB/RIF to the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis among TB-exposed children in The Gambia.

SETTING: Greater Banjul Area, The Gambia. OBJECTIVE: To conduct a pragmatic evaluation of the Xpert(®) MTB/RIF assay in the diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) among child contacts. DESIGN: In this prospective study, one induced sputum sample was obtained from TB contacts aged <15 years and tested using fluorescent microscopy, culture and Xpert. The diagnostic accuracy of the microbiological tests was evaluated against culture and 'all TB diagnosis and treatment' as separate reference standards. RESULTS: Using culture as a reference standard, Xpert was positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 6/14 culture-positive and 6/473 culture-negative children, giving a sensitivity and specificity of respectively 42.9% (95%CI 17.7-71.1) and 98.7% (95%CI 97.2-99.5). With 'all TB diagnosis and treatment' as a composite reference standard, combined Xpert and culture tests were positive for M. tuberculosis in 20/62 children with TB disease (32.3%, 95%CI 20.9-45.3), which was comparable to the yield from microscopy, culture and Xpert combined (33.9%, 95%CI 22.3-47.0), but significantly higher than individual yields from each test. CONCLUSION: The sensitivity of Xpert is low in actively traced child contacts, but a combination of Xpert and mycobacterial culture has incremental benefits for the bacteriological confirmation of TB disease.

Follicular trachoma and trichiasis prevalence in an urban community in The Gambia, West Africa: is there a need to include urban areas in national trachoma surveillance?

OBJECTIVES: Urban areas are traditionally excluded from trachoma surveillance activities, but due to rapid expansion and population growth, the urban area of Brikama in The Gambia may be developing social problems that are known risk factors for trachoma. It is also a destination for many migrants who may be introducing active trachoma into the area. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and risk factors for follicular trachoma and trichiasis in Brikama. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional prevalence survey including 27 randomly selected households in 12 randomly selected enumeration areas (EAs) of Brikama. Selected households were offered eye examinations, and the severity of trachoma was graded according to WHO's simplified grading system. Risk factor data were collected from each household via a questionnaire. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of trachomatous inflammation-follicular (TF) in children aged 1-9 years was 3.8% (95% CI 2.5-5.6), and the overall prevalence of trichiasis in adults aged ≥15 years was 0.46% (95% CI 0.17-1.14). EA prevalence of TF varied from 0% to 8.4%. The major risk factors for TF were dirty faces (P < 0.01, OR = 9.23, 95% CI 1.97-43.23), nasal discharge (P = 0.039, OR = 5.11, 95% CI 1.08-24.10) and residency in Brikama for <1 year (P = 0.047, OR = 7.78, 95% CI 1.03-59.03). CONCLUSIONS: Follicular trachoma can be considered to have been eliminated as a public health problem in Brikama according to WHO criteria. However, as the prevalence in some EAs is >5%, it may be prudent to include Brikama in surveillance programmes. Trichiasis remains a public health problem (>0.1%), and active case finding needs to be undertaken.

Risk factors for active trachoma in The Gambia.

Trachoma has been endemic in The Gambia for decades but national surveys indicate that the prevalence is falling. Risk factor data can help guide trachoma control efforts. This study investigated risk factors for active trachoma and ocular Chlamydia trachomatis infection in children aged below 10 years in two Gambian regions. The overall prevalence of C. trachomatis infection was only 0.3% (3/950) compared with 10.4% (311/2990) for active trachoma, therefore analyses were only performed for active trachoma. After adjustment, increased risk of trachoma was associated with being aged 1-2 years (odds ratio (OR) 2.20, 95% CI 1.07-4.52) and 3-5 years (OR 3.62, 95% CI 1.80-7.25) compared with <1 year, nasal discharge (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.53-2.81), ocular discharge (OR 2.68, 95% CI 1.76-4.09) and there being at least one other child in the household with active trachoma (OR 11.28, 95% CI 8.31-15.31). Compared with other occupations, children of traders had reduced risk (OR 0.53, 95% CI 0.30-0.94). At the household level, only the presence of another child in the household with active trachoma was associated with increased risk of active trachoma, suggesting that current trachoma control interventions are effective at this level. In contrast, child-level factors were associated with increased risk after adjustment, indicating a need to increase control efforts at the child level.

A randomised controlled trial of azithromycin following surgery for trachomatous trichiasis in the Gambia.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Trachomatous trichiasis frequently returns following surgery. Several factors may promote recurrence: preoperative disease severity, surgeon ability, surgical procedure, healing responses, and infection. This study investigates whether enhanced control of infection, both of Chlamydia trachomatis and other bacteria, with azithromycin can improve surgical outcome in a trachoma control programme. METHODS: Individuals with trachomatous trichiasis were examined and operated. After surgery patients were randomised to the azithromycin or control group. The azithromycin group and children in their household were given a dose of azithromycin. Antibiotic treatment was repeated at 6 months. All patients were reassessed at 6 months and 12 months. Samples were collected for C trachomatis polymerase chain reaction and general microbiology at each examination. RESULTS: 451 patients were enrolled. 426 (94%) were reassessed at 1 year, of whom 176 (41.3%) had one or more lashes touching the eye and 84 (19.7%) had five or more lashes. There was no difference in trichiasis recurrence between the azithromycin and control group. Recurrent trichiasis was significantly associated with more severe preoperative trichiasis, bacterial infection, and severe conjunctival inflammation at 12 months. Significant variability in outcome was found between surgeons. Visual acuity and symptoms significantly improved following surgery. CONCLUSION: In this setting, with a low prevalence of active trachoma, azithromycin did not improve the outcome of trichiasis surgery conducted by a trachoma control programme. Audit of trichiasis surgery should be routine.

Operational comparison of single-dose azithromycin and topical tetracycline for trachoma.

PURPOSE: World Health Organization guidelines for antibiotic treatment of trachoma currently include a 6-week course of tetracycline eye ointment twice daily or a single dose of oral azithromycin. Previous trials have shown similar efficacy of these two alternatives when administration of the ointment was carefully supervised. It is believed, however, that azithromycin may be a more effective treatment in practice, and the purpose of this study was to test that hypothesis. METHODS: A masked randomized controlled trial was conducted to compare azithromycin and tetracycline under practical operational conditions-i.e., without supervision of the administration of the ointment. Three hundred fourteen children aged 6 months to 10 years with clinically active trachoma were recruited and individually randomized to receive one of the two treatments. Follow-up visits were conducted at 10 weeks and 6 months. The outcome was resolution of disease (clinical "cure"). RESULTS: Children allocated to azithromycin were significantly more likely to have resolved disease than those allocated to tetracycline, both at 10 weeks (68% versus 51%; cure rate ratio, 1.31; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.08-1.59; P = 0.007) and at 6 months (88% versus 73%; cure rate ratio, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.06-1.34; P = 0.004). Azithromycin was particularly effective for intense inflammation (P = 0.023, Fisher's exact test). CONCLUSIONS: Single-dose oral azithromycin was a more effective treatment for active trachoma than tetracycline ointment as applied by caregivers. The high cure rate achieved with tetracycline in this study in the absence of supervision and the significantly higher costs of azithromycin, suggest that in the absence of donation programs, switching routine treatment from tetracycline to azithromycin would not be a good use of resources.