Information processing in miniature brains.

Since a comprehensive understanding of brain function and evolution in vertebrates is often hobbled by the sheer size of the nervous system, as well as ethical concerns, major research efforts have been made to understand the neural circuitry underpinning behaviour and cognition in invertebrates, and its costs and benefits under natural conditions. This special feature of Proceedings of the Royal Society B contains an idiosyncratic range of current research perspectives on neural underpinnings and adaptive benefits (and costs) of such diverse phenomena as spatial memory, colour vision, attention, spontaneous behaviour initiation, memory dynamics, relational rule learning and sleep, in a range of animals from marine invertebrates with exquisitely simple nervous systems to social insects forming societies with many thousands of individuals working together as a 'superorganism'. This introduction provides context and history to tie the various approaches together, and concludes that there is an urgent need to understand the full neuron-to-neuron circuitry underlying various forms of information processing-not just to explore brain function comprehensively, but also to understand how (and how easily) cognitive capacities might evolve in the face of pertinent selection pressures. In the invertebrates, reaching these goals is becoming increasingly realistic.

Height at menarche is influenced by estrogen receptor alpha gene polymorphisms.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that polymorphic variations in estrogen receptors (ERs) genes may have an impact on linear growth of girls during puberty. AIM: The aim of the study was to investigate whether height at menarche is influenced by PvuII and XbaI polymorphisms of the ERalpha gene. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: The study population consisted of 127 healthy girls, who were observed from premenarcheal period at six monthly intervals, until menarche occurred in all participants. Anthropometric measurements were taken at each visit and their values at menarche were calculated using centile curves drawn individually for each subject. PvuII and XbaI ERalpha gene polymorphisms were evaluated with RLFP-PCR. RESULTS: The age at menarche was not related to ERalpha gene polymorphisms. Girls with pp genotype were at menarche on average 3.2 cm shorter than PP homozygotes and in addition xx homozygotes were shorter than subjects with XX and Xx genotypes: 3.0 cm and 3.9 cm respectively. Subjects with px haplotype were, at the onset of the first menstrual period, from 2.3 cm to 3.1 cm shorter than carriers of other haplotypes. The leg length-to-height ratio at menarche was lower in xx homozygotes than in Xx heterozygotes and lower in px haplotype in comparison to Px and pX haplotypes carriers. Corresponding associations were observed at the final visit. CONCLUSIONS: Height at menarche is influenced by the ERalpha gene polymorphism.

Giant uterine leiomyomas causing bilateral hydronephrosis coexisting with endometrial cancer in polyp: a case study.

Multiple uterine leiomyomas are present in a large population of women and may cause several uncommon clinical symptoms, including disseminated vein thrombosis and hydronephrosis. We report a case of giant uterine leiomyomas causing bilateral hydronephrosis coexisting with endometrial cancer (EC) deriving from a uterine polyp. A 50-year-old woman was admitted due to bilateral hydronephrosis caused by monstrous abdominal tumor to the IInd Department of Gynecology, Lublin Medical University, Lublin, Poland. A bilateral double-J catheter was inserted. Pelvic examination revealed a huge, rough tumor, originating from the uterus. Total abdominal hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy was performed, and a giant uterus weighing 15.2 kg and measuring 35 x 29 x 18 cm was removed. Histopathological examination revealed multiple uterine leiomyomas with calcification and partial necrosis, and well-differentiated (G1), endometrioid-type EC (Stage IA) concomitant with atypical endometrial hyperplasia, deriving from a uterine polyp. The postoperative recovery was without complications, and the patient was discharged on postoperative day 10. In conclusion, giant uterine leiomyoma may incidentally compress the urinary tract organs, causing hydronephrosis.

[Urinary incontinence in women--diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines]. / Nietrzymanie moczu u kobiet--wytyczne diagnostyczne i terapeutyczne.

The pathophysiology and the most common clinical features of female urinary incontinence were presented. The practical diagnostic and therapeutic approach to urinary incontinence in patients was discussed. New surgical techniques including endoscopy and modified sling operation (TVT) were analysed in terms of clinical efficacy. The pivotal role of educational programme aimed at rational treatment of female urinary incontinence, including both physicians and patients, was emphasized.

[Tension-free vaginal tape operation: the new alternative method of treatment of genuine stress urinary incontinence]. / Podcewkowa slingoplastyka z uzyciem tasmy prolenowej jako nowa, alternatywna metoda leczenia wysilkowego nietrzymania moczu u kobiet.

Twenty patients, aged 54.4 +/- 12.6 years, suffering from genuine stress urinary incontinence underwent intravaginal slingplasty. The mechanical support for the urethra provided prolen mesh tape. The aim of the study was the assessment of clinical efficacy of newly introduced method of the treatment of genuine stress urinary incontinence. The diagnosis of urinary incontinence was based on patients' history, Gaudenz questionnaire and the results of urodynamic investigation. The mean time of surgical procedure was 20 minutes. The follow-up which was done after 1.5 to 7 months from the operation revealed that all patients remained continent. Among complications related to the procedure were 2 cases of cystotomy, 1 case of retropubic haematoma and 2 cases of urinary retention. None complication required invasive treatment and influenced the end results of the therapy.

[Stress urinary incontinence among women who underwent surgical treatment due to abdominal hernias]. / Ocena czestosci wysilkowego nietrzymania moczu u kobiet leczonych operacyjnie z powodu przepuklin brzusznych.

OBJECTIVES: Biochemical modification and resulting biomechanical disfunction of the connective tissue are believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of both stress urinary incontinence and abdominal hernias. Since the coincidence between this disorders may be anticipated, the goal of our study was to investigate the occurrence of stress urinary incontinence among women who underwent the surgical treatment of abdominal hernias. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty seven women who participated into the study were divided into two groups. The investigated group consisted of 23 women who underwent surgical treatment of femoral, inguinal or umbilical hernias, whereas the control group comprised 24 women after cholecystectomy due to cholelithiasis. Data concerning stress urinary incontinence and associated risk factors were obtained using Gaudenz's questionnaire. RESULTS: Stress urinary incontinence was reported by 34.8% of women after hernioplasty and 33.3% after cholecystectomy. The difference was not statistically significant. We found no association between known risk factors of stress urinary incontinence, as: age, weight, history regarding vaginal delivery and gynecological surgery, and occurrence of incontinence. CONCLUSION: The history of the surgical treatment of abdominal hernias is not a risk factor of stress urinary incontinence in women.

The expression of the gene encoding pro-alpha 1 chain of type I collagen in the skin of premenopausal and postmenopausal women.

OBJECTIVES: The atrophic changes occurring in the skin of postmenopausal women are thought to depend mainly on the oestrogen deficiency secondary to loss of hormonal function of the ovaries. The hypothesis to be tested was whether decreased serum level of oestrogen in these women influences the expression of gene encoding pro-alpha1 chain of type I collagen. STUDY DESIGN: The skin specimens from six premenopausal and six postmenopausal women were taken at the time of surgery. The expression of gene encoding pro-alpha1 chain of type I collagen was estimated using Dot-Blot hybridisation technique. RESULTS: The expression of pro-alpha1 chain of type I collagen gene was shown in all cases. The level of expression was different in each sample and did not depend on ovarian hormonal function. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that atrophic changes in the skin of postmenopausal women probably do not depend on diminished expression of gene encoding pro-alpha1 chain of type I collagen.

Electrophysiological responses of crayfish oocytes to biogenic amines.

Intracellular recordings were made from immature, growing oocytes of the crayfish Pacifastacus leniusciulus. Oocytes had a relatively negative resting potential of -74.7+/-2.2 mV (n=26; range -53 to -90) and a mean input resistance of 0.86+/-0.19 MOmega (n=22; range 0.17-3.3). Octopamine induced a long-lasting response involving biphasic changes in input resistance, together with bi- or multiphasic changes in membrane potential. The resistance-decreasing phase involved (in different oocytes) membrane hyperpolarization, depolarization or both. The resistance-increasing phase was usually a depolarization. The hyperpolarizing form of the resistance-decreasing response, and the depolarizing resistance-increasing response reversed in polarity at membrane potentials of (respectively) -90 and -92 mV, suggesting increases and decreases in K(+) conductance underly the biphasic changes in input resistance. The threshold concentration for the response was remarkably low (>10(-12) M) and showed little or no dose-dependence over the concentration range 10(-12)-10(-6) M. Similar responses were evoked by dopamine and serotonin (at 10(-9) M), although a higher proportion of oocytes responded to octopamine and/or dopamine than to serotonin.

Evaluation of matrix metalloproteinases-1 and -3 concentrations in the tunica albuginea, the apical wall of atretic follicles and the corpus luteum of normal human ovaries.

Matrix metalloproteinases-1 (MMP-1) and -3 (MMP-3) are proteolytic enzymes involved in remodeling the ovarian extracellular matrix throughout the menstrual cycle. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the tissue concentrations of MMP-1 and MMP-3 in the apical wall of atretic follicles (androstenedione/estradiol ratio > 4), tunica albuginea dissected from the ovarian surface overlying areas devoid of follicles, corpus luteum, and tunica albuginea covering the corpus luteum. After extraction of MMPs from the tissue samples, their concentrations in the extracts were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Significantly less MMP-1 was detected in the apical wall of atretic follicles compared to tunica albuginea taken from sites devoid of follicles. These data indicate that atresia is associated with relatively low concentrations of MMP-1 in the apical wall of the follicle. Moreover, there was a negative correlation between the amount of MMP-3 and the diameter of follicle. These data suggest that both MMPs play an important role in the final step of atresia. The amount of MMP-1 in the corpus luteum was several times lower than in the other tissues. This is likely due to stabilization of the extracellular matrix during the period of the corpus luteum maintenance. The concentration of MMP-3 did not differ significantly among the examined tissues.

Antagonistic effects of phentolamine and octopamine on rhythmic motor output of crayfish thoracic ganglia.

Spontaneous rhythmic motor output of crayfish thoracic ganglia consists of bursts of activity in antagonistic leg motor neurons (MNs), alternating with a rather slow cycle period (typically > or = 20 s). The most common pattern (77% of preparations) consists of long coxal promotor bursts, the duration of which was correlated strongly with cycle period, and relatively short remotor bursts independent of cycle period. Octopamine, at a concentration of 2-30 microM reversibly retarded this rhythm, increasing both cycle period and promotor burst duration. Higher concentrations of octopamine inhibited promotor nerve activity and abolished rhythmic bursting. Phentolamine (10-50 microM) had the opposite effect of decreasing cycle period, mainly by decreasing promotor burst duration. Whereas in the presence of octopamine promotor bursts were lengthened and became even more strongly related to cycle period, phentolamine promoted a more symmetrical rhythm with shorter promotor bursts that were less dependent on cycle period. When octopamine was applied in the presence of phentolamine, there was no significant increase in cycle period or burst duration, although high octopamine concentrations (100 microM) were still capable of inhibiting promotor nerve activity. To our knowledge, pharmacological modulation of a spontaneous locomotor rhythm by an amine antagonist (applied by itself) has not been reported previously. The results raise the testable possibility that phentolamine exerts its modulatory effects by acting as an octopamine antagonist in crayfish thoracic ganglia.

Interstitial collagenase (MMP-1) activity in human ovarian tissue.

The collagen content and collagenase activity were estimated in human ovarian interstitial tissue devoid of all visible follicles in menstruating, fertile as well as climacteric women. The mean total collagenase activity in ovarian specimens taken during both follicular (n = 10, 3.97 +/- 0.58 U/g wet weight, ww) and luteal phase (n = 10, 3.39 +/- 1.24 U/g ww) of the normal menstrual cycle along with total collagen concentration (184.8 +/- 41.0 vs. 194.4 +/- 30.5 micrograms/mg ww, respectively) did not differ. Total collagenase activity of climacteric gonads (n = 5, 1.55 +/- 0.71 U/g ww) was lower than in specimens collected during both follicular and luteal phase (p = 0.0002 and p = 0.017, respectively). About 23% of the total collagenase activity in follicular phase ovarian extracts and only about 1% in luteal phase ovarian preparations was found in the latent form. The percentage of latent collagenase in ovarian tissue during the follicular phase was negatively correlated with the day of the menstrual cycle (r = -0.93, p = 0.007). Extracellular matrix remodelling in the human ovary can be correlated with the functional status of the follicular unit.

Local collagen turnover in human foetal membranes during full term vaginal delivery.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate if changes in local metabolism of collagens type I and type III may contribute to the term rupture of the foetal membranes. STUDY DESIGN: In extracts from membranes taken along the rupture line and near the site of the umbilical cord attachment to the placenta, we measured concentrations of specific markers of collagen synthesis, namely C-terminal propeptide of type I collagen (PICP) and N-terminal propeptide of type III collagen (PIIINP), as well as the concentration of the pyridinoline cross-linked C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (ICTP), which reflects the rate of collagen type I breakdown. RESULTS: The mean concentrations of PICP and PIIINP did not differ statistically between the two examined groups of samples. The mean ICTP concentration was threefold higher in extracts prepared from samples taken near the rupture site, than from membranes derived from the proximity of the umbilical cord attachment. CONCLUSIONS: Term rupture of foetal membranes is accompanied by increased local degradation of type I collagen fibrils at the rupture site, whereas the biosynthesis of collagen types I and III remains unchanged.

[The analysis of serum lipid profile in anovulatory and ovulatory women in fifth decade of life]. / Analiza profilu lipidowego u kobiet w piatej dekadzie zycia w cyklach owulacyjnych i bezowulacyjnych.

OBJECTIVES: We examined the effect of declining ovarian function on lipid profile. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Serum concentrations of total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), triglycerides (TG) as well as early follicular phase FSH, periovulatory 17-beta oestradiol and midluteal progesterone levels were estimated. 71 regularly menstruating premenopausal women were divided according to serum progesterone concentration on: anovulatory (progesterone < 4.5 ng/ml) and ovulatory group (progesterone > 4.5 ng/ml). RESULTS: Investigated groups did not differ with respect to mean age, body mass index but hormonal profile showed higher level of FSH in anovulatory (15.1 +/- 21.2 mIU/ml) then in ovulatory group (5.1 +/- 4.2 mIU/ml, p = 0.008). 17-beta oestradiol levels were 91.9 +/- 29.9 pg/ml vs. 123 +/- 48.6 pg/ml, p < 0.05, respectively. Statistically significant difference in LDL concentration between anovulatory and ovulatory group was found (144.9 +/- 29.9 mg/dl vs. 131.4 +/- 24.6 mg/dl, p = 0.04, respectively). Also HDL content of the TC showed statistically significant difference between these two groups (19.3 +/- 4.4% vs. 21.4 +/- 4.3%, p = 0.04, respectively). However, there were no difference in serum concentrations of TC, TG, HDL. CONCLUSION: Based on these findings we concluded that changes in lipid metabolism that lead to increased risk of cardiovascular diseases may appear as early as in the 5th decade of life in apparently healthy women.

[Activity of tissue inhibitors of metal proteinases (TMI) in th fetal membrane during term vaginal delivery]. / Aktywnosc tkankowych inhibitorów metaloproteinaz (TIMPs) w blonach plodowych podczas porodu w ciazy donoszonej.

In the foetal membranes that ruptured spontaneously or by means of amniotomy during term vaginal deliveries the activity of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases was evaluated. Samples were taken from the proximity of the rupture line. Almost twofold lower TIMPs activity in the naturally ruptured membranes was observed. We conclude that during normally proceeding term vaginal delivery the activity of TIMPs in the lowermost pole of the amniotic sac is decreased, what may play very important role in the mechanism of the term rupture of the foetal membranes.

Modulation of spontaneous and reflex activity of crayfish leg motor neurons by octopamine and serotonin.

1. We compared the effects of octopamine and serotonin on the activity of crayfish leg motor neurons in an isolated preparation of the 4th thoracic ganglion. Spontaneous activity of leg promotor (swing phase in a forward walking crayfish) and remotor (stance phase) motor neurons consisted either of continuous promotor activity (with the remotor nerve silent) or alternating bursts of promotor and remotor activity. Octopamine and serotonin, at high concentrations (< or = 100 and < or = 20 microM, respectively), abolished spontaneous promotor activity and rhythmic bursting (if ongoing). Both amines induced tonic remotor nerve activity, but each amine activated different identified remotor motor neurons. 2. Reflex responses of remotor motor neurons to stimulation of thoracocoxal (TC) joint proprioceptors were modulated by octopamine and serotonin in characteristic ways. The muscle receptor (TCMRO) that signals joint remotion excited a subset of remotor motor neurons in an assistance reflex. The chordotonal organ (TCCO) that signals joint promotion excited different remotor motor neurons in a resistance reflex. Octopamine abolished assistance reflexes and facilitated resistance reflexes. One assistance group unit was inhibited, whereas reflex reversal was induced in another: this unit was now excited in a resistance reflex, rather than in an assistance reflex. The responses of resistance group remotor units were enhanced. Serotonin had the opposite effect on assistance group remotors: one unit was excited and generated a stronger assistance reflex. The effect of serotonin on resistance group remotor units was similar (but quantitatively different) to that of octopamine. 3. Both octopamine and serotonin modulated spontaneous motor output at concentrations below those required to inhibit promotor nerve activity. Rhythmic promotor and remotor bursting was abolished, and replaced with continuous promotor activity, by serotonin at 1 microM and octopamine at 1-10 microM. In nonbursting preparations, promotor activity could be excited (instead of inhibited) by either amine at lower concentrations. 4. Octopaminergic inhibition of spontaneous promotor activity was antagonized by mianserin (10 microM). Phentolamine at the same concentration was less effective as an antagonist. Serotonergic inhibition of promotor activity was not blocked by mianserin. Mianserin also antagonized inhibitory, but not excitatory, effects of octopamine on remotor reflex responses. Serotonergic modulation of these reflexes was not affected. 5. An intersegmental difference was found in aminergic inhibition of promotor nerve activity. Whereas the effect (at the higher concentrations used) was inhibition of promotor activity from T4, simultaneous recordings from promotor nerves of the more rostral ganglia T3 and T2 showed either promotor excitation, or inhibition that was significantly weaker than in T4. This may relate to the known postural effects of these amines in intact crayfish and lobsters. 6. We conclude that octopamine and serotonin are modulators of segmental reflexes in the crayfish walking system. Each amine "assembles" a unique remotor nerve reflex response from different combinations of remotor units. In the case of octopamine, inhibitory effects are mediated by a mianserin-sensitive receptor, whereas excitatory effects are mediated by a mianserin-insensitive receptor.

Local activity of matrix metalloproteinases in a case of botryoid sarcoma.

The aim of the study was to assess the activities of the collagenases type IV (matrix metalloproteinase type 2 [MMP-2] and matrix metalloproteinase type 9 [MMP-9]), also known as gelatinases, and the local activity of interstitial collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase type I[MMP-1]) in tissue extracts from a case of the botryoid sarcoma, a rare and very malignant tumour of the female genital tract. Zymography revealed that botryoid sarcoma does not express the 92-kDa form of type IV collagenase activity in Triton extract and only weak activity in Heat extract when compared to values found in extracts from striated muscle and fibroma uteri. MMP-1 appeared in the latent form only in the Triton extract of botryoid sarcoma and its activity was lower than those found in the control tissues. These results indicate that the very rapid local invasion and systemic metastases associated with botryoid sarcoma do not depend on the activity of tumour-derived gelatinases.

Extracellular matrix remodelling within the normal human ovarian capsule.

Collagen tissue content and both interstitial (MMP-1) and type IV collagenases (also known as gelatinases) activity within the normal human ovarian capsule were investigated. The apical tunica albuginea (n = 10) displayed a lower mean total collagen concentration than the ovarian capsule areas (n = 9) with no follicles underneath them (137.8 +/- 36.1 vs. 176.6 +/- 23.1 micrograms/mg wet weight tissue (ww), P = 0.004). This was accompanied by higher net interstitial collagenase activity (12.96 +/- 2.26 vs. 5.97 +/- 1.9 U/g ww, P = 0.016) which was present within the ovarian capsule in active form only. Zymography revealed the dominance of the 72-kDa over the 92-kDa gelatinase form regardless of the capsule area investigated. Our results indicate that extracellular matrix remodelling within human tunica albuginea is more strongly pronounced in the apical region.

Octopamine induces steady-state reflex reversal in crayfish thoracic ganglia.

1. This paper investigates the effect of octopamine on spontaneous and reflex motor output of crayfish leg motor neurons. Octopamine modulated spontaneous activity, both rhythmic and tonic, and dramatically modulated the pattern of reflex motor output elicited by stimulating identified proprioceptors of the basal limb. 2. Spontaneous reciprocal motor patterns, involving alternating bursts of promotor and remotor motor neuron activity, were reversibly abolished by octopamine. The threshold concentration for this effect was approximately 1 microM. 3. At concentrations greater than approximately 10 microM octopamine inhibited spontaneous promotor nerve activity in both bursting and nonbursting preparations. In some experiments promotor inhibition was correlated with the induction of tonic remotor nerve activity. The EC50 for complete inhibition of promotor nerve activity by octopamine was 20-30 microM. 4. Reflexes mediated by two basal limb proprioceptors, the thoracocoxal muscle receptor organ (TCMRO; which signals leg promotion) and the thoracocoxal chordotonal organ (TCCO; which signals leg remotion) were analyzed in a number of promotor and remotor motor neurons. In both cases assistance reflexes (excitation of promotors by the TCCO and remotors by the TCMRO) were restricted to subgroups of the motor pool. Among remotor motor neurons, the first two units recruited during bursts of spontaneous activity were members of the assistance reflex group (group 1). A third unit, sometimes recruited during more intense spontaneous bursts, was excited by TCCO stimulation and was therefore a member of the resistance reflex group (group 2). Other resistance group remotors were also excited by the TCCO, but this input normally remained subthreshold. 5. Stimulation of the TCCO afferent nerve elicited excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in group 2 (resistance group) remotor motor neurons at a latency compatible with a monosynaptic connection. The same stimulation excited group 1 (assistance group) promotor motor neurons, but at a greater and more variable latency. Thus the remotor resistance reflex from the TCCO is probably monosynaptic, but the promotor assistance reflex, also elicited by TCCO stimulation, is likely to be di- or polysynaptic. Assistance group (group 1) remotor motor neurons are inhibited by mechanical stimulation of the TCCO, or electrical stimulation of its nerve. 6. Octopamine had selective effects on individual remotor units. First, assistance group remotor motor neurons were affected in two ways. One unit was inhibited, so that reflex spiking in response to TCMRO stimulation was abolished. A second unit was not inhibited, but its reflex response mode changed, so that instead of responding to TCMRO input with an assistance reflex, it responded to TCCO input with a resistance reflex. Second, among motor neurons that normally respond to TCCO input with resistance reflexes, these responses were enhanced by octopamine. 7. Promotor motor neurons were inhibited by octopamine and reflex responses were also affected selectively. Responses to TCCO input (assistance reflexes) were abolished; whereas, responses to TCMRO input (resistance reflexes) were relatively less affected. 8. Intracellular recordings revealed that the majority of remotor motor neurons depolarized in the presence of octopamine. In preparations where these could be classified on the basis of TCMRO/ TCCO inputs, all were identified as group 2 (resistance group). A minority of remotor motor neurons were hyperpolarized by octopamine. All of these were identified as group 1 (assistance group), with strong TCMRO input. 9. The majority of promotor motor neurons were depolarized by octopamine. This depolarization was nevertheless inhibitory since it reversed slightly positive to rest and was associated with a substantial fall in inp

[The biochemical mechanism of cervical ripening after intracervical application of PGE2]. / Biochemiczny mechanizm procesu dojrzewania szyjki macicy ciezarnej po miejscowym zastosowaniu prostaglandyny E2.

The influence of local intracervical application of PGE2 (Prostin E2-Upjohn) on collagenolytic activity as well as extracellular matrix components of human cervix during parturition has been analyzed. The content and extractability of collagen as well as concentration of glycosaminoglycans and hyaluronic acid were investigated. Since we did not find any statistical changes in DNP-peptide collagenolytic activity and investigated extracellular macromolecules of cervical connective tissue we presumed that cervical ripening after local prostaglandin application closely resembles that occurring spontaneously.