Potent stimulation of the innate immune system by a Leishmania brasiliensis recombinant protein.

The interaction of the innate immune system with the microbial world involves primarily two sets of molecules generally known as microbial pattern recognition receptors and microbial pattern recognition molecules, respectively. Examples of the former are the Toll receptors present particularly in macrophages and dendritic cells. Conversely, the microbial pattern recognition molecules are conserved protist homopolymers, such as bacterial lipopolysaccharides, lipoteichoic acids, peptidoglycans, glucans, mannans, unmethylated bacterial DNA, and double-strand viral RNA. However, for protists that lack most of these molecules, such as protozoans, the innate immune system must have evolved receptors that recognize other groups of microbial molecules. Here we present evidence that a highly purified protein encoded by a Leishmania brasiliensis gene may be one such molecule. This recombinant leishmanial molecule, a homologue of eukaryotic ribosomal elongation and initiation factor 4a (LeIF), strongly stimulates spleen cells from severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice to produce interleukin-12 (IL-12), IL-18, and high levels of gamma interferon. In addition, LeIF potentiates the cytotoxic activity of the NK cells of these animals. Because LeIF is a conserved molecule and because SCID mice lack T and B lymphocytes but have a normal innate immune system (normal reticuloendothelial system and NK cells), these results suggest that proteins may also be included as microbial pattern recognition molecules. The nature of the receptor involved in this innate recognition is unknown. However, it is possible to exclude the Toll receptor Tlr4 as a putative LeIF receptor because the gene encoding this receptor is defective in C3H/HeJ mice, the mouse strain used in the present studies.

Multiepitope synthetic peptide and recombinant protein for the detection of antibodies to Trypanosoma cruzi in patients with treated or untreated Chagas' disease.

A tetrapeptide and a recombinant protein, each representing 4 immunodominant epitopes of Trypanosoma cruzi, were tested by use of ELISA for the detection of serum antibodies. Sera from individuals with Chagas' disease, including persons untreated and successfully or unsuccessfully treated, were tested. These assays detected antibody in 100% of the parasitemias. The antibody reactivity decreased based on the success of treatment. Higher sensitivity was observed for tetrapeptide/recombinant protein assays than for lysate-based ELISA, and specificity was improved, particularly with Leishmania sera. The results indicate that multiepitope antigens provide a more sensitive and specific alternative to lysate for detection of anti-T. cruzi antibodies, as required for developing blood screening assays.

Generation of immunity to the HER-2/neu oncogenic protein in patients with breast and ovarian cancer using a peptide-based vaccine.

HER-2/neu is a "self" tumor antigen that is overexpressed in 15-30% of human adenocarcinomas. Vaccine strategies directed against HER-2/neu and other self tumor antigens require development of methods to overcome immune tolerance to self-proteins. In rats, rat neu peptide vaccines have been shown to be an effective way of circumventing tolerance to rat neu protein and generating rat neu-specific immunity. The present report validates that a similar peptide-based vaccine formulation is effective for inducing T-cell immunity to HER-2/neu protein in humans with breast and ovarian cancer. The vaccine formulation included groups of peptides derived from the HER-2/neu extracellular domain (ECD) or intracellular domain (ICD) mixed with granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor as an adjuvant. These peptides were 15-18 amino acids in length and designed to elicit a CD4 T helper-specific immune response. Patients underwent intradermal immunization once a month for a total of two to six immunizations. To date, all of the patients immunized with HER-2/neu peptides developed HER-2/neu peptide-specific T-cell responses. The majority of patients (six of eight) also developed HER-2/neu protein-specific responses. Responses to HER-2/neu protein occurred with epitope spreading. Immune T cells elicited by vaccination were shown to migrate outside the peripheral circulation by virtue of generating delayed type hypersensitivity responses distant from the vaccine site, which indicated the potential ability to traffic to the site of tumor. The use of peptide-based vaccines may be a simple, yet effective, vaccine strategy for immunizing humans to oncogenic self-proteins.

A multi-epitope synthetic peptide and recombinant protein for the detection of antibodies to Trypanosoma cruzi in radioimmunoprecipitation-confirmed and consensus-positive sera.

Peptide epitopes of Trypanosoma cruzi have been identified through expression cloning. A tripeptide (2/D/E) containing three epitopes (TcD, TcE, PEP-2) was used in ELISA to detect antibodies to T. cruzi in 239 of 240 consensus-positive sera and 41 of 42 sera confirmed positive by radioimmunoprecipitation assay. The 1 discrepant consensus-positive serum was used to expression-clone a novel gene that contained a repeat sequence. A peptide corresponding to this sequence, TcLo1.2, was specific for T. cruzi. This antigen detected the discrepant consensus-positive serum and enhanced reactivity of low-positive sera in the tripeptide assay. A branched synthetic peptide, 2/D/E/Lo1.2, or a linear recombinant, r2/D/E/Lo1.2, realized all of the diagnostic features of the four epitopes, including the ability to boost reactivity of low-reactive sera. These studies show that peptides and recombinants containing multiple repeat epitopes are powerful tools for developing assays for T. cruzi antibody detection and have direct application in blood screening.

Effect of interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme inhibitor on acute myelogenous leukemia progenitor proliferation.

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) converting enzyme (ICE) is a cysteine protease that specifically cleaves precursor IL-1 beta to its biologically active form. Recent studies have also implicated ICE in the induction of apoptosis in vertebrate cells. Because IL-1 plays a major role in acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) blast proliferation, we sought to investigate the effect of ICE inhibition on AML progenitors. To do this, we used bocaspartyl (benzyl) chloromethylketone (BACMK) an inhibitor designed to penetrate cells and bind covalently to the active site of ICE. Our preliminary experiments showed that incubation of activated peripheral blood cells with 2.5 mumol/L of BAMCK downregulated production of mature IL-1 beta but had no effect on tumor necrosis factor-alpha. To test the effects of the inhibitor on AML cells, we first used the OCI/AML3 cell line. We found that these cells produce IL-1 beta and bind the biotinylated cytokine and that IL-1 inhibitors, such as IL-1 neutralizing antibodies, IL-1 receptor antagonist, and soluble IL-1 receptors, specifically inhibit OCI/AML3 proliferation, indicating that IL-1 beta is an autocrine growth factor for OCI/AML3 cells. The ICE inhibitor suppressed OCI/AML3 growth in a dose-dependent manner (at 0.4 to 4 mumol/L) and downregulated mature IL-1 beta production, as assessed by Western immunoblotting. Similar results were obtained with marrow aspirates from 16 AML patients. The ICE inhibitor suppressed proliferation of AML precursors (by up to 78%; mean, 44%) in a dose-dependent fashion at concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 5 mumol/L but not proliferation of normal marrow progenitors; the suppressive effect was reversed by IL-1 beta. Furthermore, incubation of AML cells with 4 mumol/L BAMCK downregulated the production of mature IL-1 beta, suggesting that the growth-inhibitory effect is mediated through suppression of the biologically active cytokine. Our data indicate that inhibition of ICE suppresses AML blast proliferation and suggest that ICE inhibitors may have a role in future therapies for AML.

The K protein domain that recruits the interleukin 1-responsive K protein kinase lies adjacent to a cluster of c-Src and Vav SH3-binding sites. Implications that K protein acts as a docking platform.

The heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particle (hnRNP) K protein interacts with multiple molecular partners including DNA, RNA, serine/threonine, and tyrosine kinases and the product of the proto-oncogene, Vav. The K protein is phosphorylated in vivo and in vitro on serine/threonine residues by an interleukin 1 (IL-1)-responsive kinase with which it forms a complex. In this study we set out to map the K protein domains that bind kinases. We demonstrate that the K protein contains a cluster of at least three SH3-binding sites (P1, PPGRGGRPMPPSRR, amino acids 265-278; P2, PRRGPPPPPPGRG, 285-297; and P3, RARNLPLPPPPPPRGG, 303-318) and that each one of these sites is capable of selectively engaging c-Src and Vav SH3 domains but not SH3 domains of Abl, p85 phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Grb-2, and Csk. We demonstrate that the K protein domain that recruits and is phosphorylated in an RNA-dependent manner by the IL-1-responsive kinase, designated KPK for K protein kinase, is contained within the 338-425-amino acid stretch and thus is contiguous but does not include the cluster of the SH3-binding sites. K protein and KPK co-immunoprecipitate from cell extracts with either c-Src or Vav, suggesting that K protein-KPK-c-Src and K protein-KPK-Vav complexes exist in vivo. Furthermore, in the context of K protein, c-Src can reactivate KPK in vitro. The succession of kinase-binding sites contained within the K protein that allow it to form multienzyme complexes and facilitate kinase cross-talk suggest that K protein may serve as a docking platform that promotes molecular interactions occurring during signal transduction.

Purification, cloning, and expression of a murine phosphoprotein that binds the kappa B motif in vitro identifies it as the homolog of the human heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K protein. Description of a novel DNA-dependent phosphorylation process.

The kappa B enhancer element regulates expression of many genes involved in immune responses and other processes. kappa B motif binds a number of proteins, some but not all, are related to the NF-kappa B family of transcription factors. We have previously identified a 65-kDa phosphoprotein that is specifically recognized by the kappa B motif (Ostrowski, J., Sims, J. E., Sibley, C. H., Valentine, M. A., Dower, S. K., Meier, K. E., and Bomsztyk, K. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 12722-12733). This protein is closely associated with a serine/threonine kinase that is responsive to treatment of cells with interleukin-1 and other agents. We report here purification, cloning, and expression of this kappa B motif-binding phosphoprotein. The primary structure deduced from the isolated murine cDNA, identifies the protein as the homolog of the human heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K protein. Antipeptide antibodies and expression of the cloned cDNA in Escherichia coli, demonstrated that the K protein is the authentic phosphoprotein that binds the kappa B motif in vitro. We also demonstrate that the in vitro phosphorylation of the natural and the recombinant K proteins by the associated kinase is stimulated by the kappa B motif.

Protection against a lethal dose of endotoxin by an inhibitor of tumour necrosis factor processing.

Tumour necrosis factor (tumour necrosis factor-alpha/cachectin) plays a critical role in certain physiological defensive responses but causes severe damage to the host organism when produced in excess. There are two forms of tumour necrosis factor, a type II membrane protein of relative molecular mass 26,000 (26K) and a soluble, 17K form generated from the cell-bound protein by proteolytic cleavage. The two forms of tumour necrosis factor and lymphotoxin-alpha (tumour necrosis factor-beta/lymphotoxin), a related protein, have similar but apparently not identical biological activities. A therapeutic agent which inhibited the release of tumour necrosis factor, but did not reduce the cell-associated activity or the level of lymphotoxin-alpha, might preserve the benefits of these cytokines while preventing tumour necrosis factor-induced damage. Here we describe a potent inhibitor of tumour necrosis factor processing and report that it protects mice from a lethal dose of endotoxin.

Serodiagnosis of Chagas' disease by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using two synthetic peptides as antigens.

An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed for detecting antibodies against Trypanosoma cruzi. Two synthetic T. cruzi peptides, TcD and PEP2, were used. The specificity and sensitivity of the peptide ELISA were determined with 260 serum samples from individuals living in an area in which Chagas' disease is endemic. ELISAs were performed with the peptides singly or in combination. The evaluation of these tests showed that 168 (93.8%) of 179 serum samples from T. cruzi-infected patients were positive when TcD peptide was used as antigen; 164 (91.6%) samples were positive with PEP2, and 178 (99.4%) samples were positive when the two peptides were combined. Thus, the sensitivity of the ELISA using the two peptides exceeded 99%. The specificity was evaluated by using a panel of 118 serum samples that included samples from 81 individuals living in an area of endemicity with negative serology for Chagas' disease and from 37 patients from areas in which T. cruzi was not endemic but with other pathologies, such as leishmaniasis, tuberculosis, and leprosy. Only two false-positive serum samples were found in this group of individuals, giving a test specificity of more than 98%. Because these peptides can be synthesized and are very stable at room temperature, the use of such reagents can improve the standardization and reproducibility of ELISAs for the serodiagnosis of T. cruzi infection.

The interleukin-1-stimulated protein kinase that phosphorylates heat shock protein hsp27 is activated by MAP kinase.

In KB cells, interleukin-1 (IL-1), epidermal growth factor and phorbol ester transiently activated both MAP kinase and a serine kinase which phosphorylated the heat shock protein hsp27. Extracts made from IL-1-stimulated KB cells phosphorylated recombinant hsp27, in vitro, on serine residues 78 and 82 which are contained within Arg-X-X-Ser motifs similar to those phosphorylated by the ribosomal protein S6 kinases. Upon size exclusion chromatography, however, hsp27 kinase eluted as a single peak of activity at 50-60 kDa, clearly separated from ribosomal protein S6 kinases. Treatment of partially purified hsp27 kinase with protein phosphatase-2a reduced its activity by 80%. De-phosphorylated hsp27 kinase could be approximately 50% reactivated by a factor present in IL-1-treated cell extracts in the presence of ATP. This factor co-eluted with MAP kinase after partial purification by DEAE-cellulose, phenyl Sepharose, and size exclusion chromatography. Purified sea star p44mpk and recombinant ERK2 MAP kinases were also capable of re-activating hsp27 kinase to a similar extent. These data suggest that hsp27 kinase is downstream from, and probably a direct target of MAP kinase.

Trypanosoma cruzi acidic ribosomal P protein gene family. Novel P proteins encoding unusual cross-reactive epitopes.

We have cloned and characterized cDNA molecules that encode members of the acidic ribosomal protein family (TcP proteins) from the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. These proteins have been shown to be antigenic in individuals with T. cruzi infection. Unlike other known eukaryotic cells, T. cruzi possesses at least four types of P protein genes TcP0, TcP1, TcP2a, and TcP2b, each of which is present in multiple copies in the genome. These genes are present on at least three different chromosomes. Although the abundance of TcP0, TcP2a, and TcP2b transcripts do not appear to vary among the parasite life-cycle stages, TcP1 is predominantly expressed in the epimastigote (insect) stage. TcP0 has a C-terminal heptapeptide sequence that is similar to those of archaebacterial acidic (P-like) proteins, but the TcP1/P2 proteins terminate with a shared sequence characteristic of the P proteins of higher eukaryotes. The serine residues or other potential phosphorylation sites typically found within the highly charged C-terminal acidic domain are absent in T. cruzi P proteins. Using synthetic peptides, we demonstrated that approximately 80% of T. cruzi-infected individuals produce two distinct but cross-reactive anti-P antibody specificities directed against the C-termini of TcP0 and TcP1/P2. We also expressed the full length (non-fusion) recombinant human P0 and demonstrated that the T. cruzi anti-P antibodies cross-react with the C-terminal residues of human P-proteins. Conversely, human anti-P protein antibodies in sera from patients with SLE cross-react with the C-terminal epitope of T. cruzi TcP1/P2 proteins. The cross-reactivity of anti-TcP antibodies with human P proteins suggests that, through antigenic conservation, TcP proteins may contribute to the development of autoreactive antibodies in Chagas' disease patients.

Characterization of the protein encoded by the flt3 (flk2) receptor-like tyrosine kinase gene.

We have developed rabbit polyclonal antibodies to the C-terminus of the flt3-encoded protein, which is a member of the receptor tyrosine kinase family. Immunoprecipitation using this antiserum brings down two protein bands, a major band of 143 kDa and a less abundant, more diffuse, band of 158 kDa. Pulse-chase analysis of flt3 protein from transfected COS-7 cells shows that the larger band is derived from the smaller one and presumably represents maturation of the protein from a glycosylated high-mannose form to a complex carbohydrate form. N-glycosidase F digestion confirmed the presence of N-linked carbohydrates, and cell-surface labeling of flt3-transfected cells indicated that the 158-kDa glycoprotein is the species found on the cell surface. A mutated form of the flt3 protein that was defective in its glycosylational processing was identified. Western blotting of the immunoprecipitated flt3 protein showed that it is heavily phosphorylated on tyrosine, and that this phosphorylation probably occurs in the absence of ligand. In this regard, the flt3 protein resembles the c-erbB2 protein, which is also highly phosphorylated in the absence of ligand. These data suggest that the flt3 receptor regulates the growth and differentiation of cells via an as yet unknown ligand.

Importance of the amino terminus of the interleukin-8 receptor in ligand interactions.

Interleukin-8 (IL-8) and growth regulatory gene/melanoma growth stimulatory activity (GRO/MGSA) are small polypeptide molecules involved in the chemotactic response of certain cell types. Two receptors have been described which interact with IL-8, designated type 1 and type 2. IL-8 binds with high affinity to both receptors, whereas GRO/MGSA and neutrophil-activating peptide-2 demonstrate a high degree of binding only to the type 2 receptor. The two forms of IL-8 receptor are members of the rhodopsin seven-helix membrane-spanning superfamily, and share a high degree of overall homology, although the amino termini are very divergent. By using conserved restriction enzyme sites, a series of chimeric IL-8 receptor molecules were constructed between the type 1 and type 2 receptors and transfected into human 293 kidney epithelial cells. These chimeric molecules altered regions of the receptor presented to the ligand. The ability of the chimeric receptors to bind IL-8 was determined, as well as the ability of IL-8 and GRO/MGSA to inhibit radiolabeled IL-8 binding. The amino terminus of the IL-8 receptors was found to be important for differential binding of GRO/MGSA and IL-8. In addition, a series of peptides was also constructed to further investigate which residues of IL-8 receptor interact with IL-8. These peptides also identified the amino-terminal sequence of the IL-8 receptors as being important in interacting with IL-8.

Mapping human T cell epitopes in leishmania gp63. Identification of cross-reactive and species-specific epitopes.

Both a conserved surface metalloprotease of leishmania, gp63 as well as certain gp63-derived peptides, have been shown to have immunoprophylactic potential in mouse models of leishmaniasis. In addition, PBMC from individuals with cutaneous, mucosal, or cured visceral leishmaniasis respond in vitro to both native and rgp63. In this report, we mapped human T cell epitopes within gp63. T cells from leishmaniasis patients responded in vitro to certain peptides of gp63 by proliferation and IFN-gamma production. One peptide, (PT7), stimulated cells from all individuals tested (n = 7). Anti-PT7 T cell lines derived from PBMC of a mucosal leishmaniasis patient contained a heterogeneous population of cells which responded by proliferation and IFN-gamma production to in vitro stimulation with Leishmania promastigote lysate. Another peptide (PT1) derived from Leishmania chagasi gp63 stimulated PBMC from an L. chagasi patient although the corresponding Leishmania major-derived peptide did not. Both L. major PT7 and L. chagasi PT1 were able to induce anti-Leishmania-specific T cell lines from normal human PBMC. These T cell lines responded to in vitro stimulation with promastigote lysate indicating that both peptides were immunogenic for naive T cells in vitro. In conclusion, both antigenic and immunogenic gp63 peptide sequences have been defined, some appearing to be conserved among Leishmania species and at least one that appears to be species specific.

Viral inhibition of inflammation: cowpox virus encodes an inhibitor of the interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme.

Cowpox virus effectively inhibits inflammatory responses against viral infection in the chick embryo. This study demonstrates that one of the viral genes necessary for this inhibition, the crmA gene (a cytokine response modifier gene), encodes a serpin that is a specific inhibitor of the interleukin-1 beta converting enzyme. This serpin can prevent the proteolytic activation of interleukin-1 beta, thereby suppressing an interleukin-1 beta response to infection. However, the modification of this single cytokine response is not sufficient to inhibit inflammatory responses. This suggests that cowpox virus encodes several cytokine response modifiers that act together to inhibit the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to infection. These viral countermeasures to host defenses against infection may contribute significantly to the pathology associated with poxvirus infections.

Identification and synthesis of a major conserved antigenic epitope of Trypanosoma cruzi.

A gene sequence encoding an immunodominant protein with a repetitive epitope from the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, was cloned and expressed. The identified 10-amino acid repeat is present within a high-molecular-weight trypomastigote antigen that appears specific to and conserved among T. cruzi isolates. More importantly, greater than 95% of T. cruzi infection sera, including both chronic and acute Chagas disease, contained elevated levels of antibody to a 15-amino acid synthetic peptide bearing the repetitive B-cell epitope. Considering the wide diversity of T. cruzi parasites, as well as the broad spectrum of clinical manifestations of Chagas disease, such a prevalent immune response among patients is significant and applicable to the control of Chagas disease through the diagnosis of T. cruzi infection.

Interleukin-1 represents a new modality for the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases/microtubule-associated protein-2 kinases.

In this study we describe the activation of a protein kinase which phosphorylates a peptide, T669, comprising amino acids 663-681 of the epidermal growth factor receptor and containing the phosphate acceptor site Pro-Leu-Thr669-Pro. In the human epidermoid carcinoma cell line KB, T669 kinase activity in cytosolic extracts peaked (up to 15-fold compared with basal levels) 15-30 min after addition of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and closely paralleled receptor occupancy with a half-maximally effective concentration of approximately 100 pM IL-1 alpha. IL-1 treatment elevated T669 kinase activity to a variable extent in selected fibroblast lines, the hepatoma cell line HepG2, and the murine thymoma EL4 6.1. An IL-1 receptor-negative EL4 variant and the B cell lines 70Z/3, CB23, and RPMI 1788 did not respond in this way. All of the cell lines except 70Z/3 showed increased levels of T669 kinase when treated with the protein kinase C activator phorbol myristate acetate and/or with epidermal growth factor. This finding is in agreement with a previous study (Countaway, J. L., Northwood, I. C., and Davis, R. J. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 10828-10835). Activators of protein kinase A did not mimic the ability of IL-1 to stimulate T669 kinase activity, nor did the protein kinase C inhibitor staurosporine abrogate the effect of IL-1. T669 kinase activity from IL-1-stimulated KB cells was partially purified by ion exchange, hydrophobic interaction, and size exclusion chromatography. The partially purified enzyme phosphorylated myelin basic protein, a characteristic substrate of microtubule-associated protein-2 kinase (MAP-2 kinase) and the peptide Arg-Arg-Arg-(Tyr-Ser-Pro-Thr-Ser-Pro-Ser)4 from RNA polymerase II. Western blotting of chromatographic fractions revealed that T669 kinase activity corresponded with two proteins of 43 and 45 kilodaltons which cross-reacted with antibodies raised against peptide sequences of rat extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/microtubule-associated protein-2 kinase. T669 kinase activity was critically dependent on the presence of phosphatase inhibitors. Since both the 43- and 45-kDa proteins, immunoprecipitated from [32P]phosphate-labeled cells, demonstrated a dramatic increase in their levels of serine, threonine, and tyrosine phosphorylation after brief treatment with IL-1, we conclude that IL-1 modulates the activity of these extracellular signal-regulated kinase/microtubule-associated protein-2 kinases by altering the level of their phosphorylation.