Synergistic interaction of child manageability problems and parent-discipline tactics in predicting future growth in externalizing behavior for boys.

Manageability problems during early childhood for boys were hypothesized to disrupt parental discipline practices. In turn, disrupted parental discipline practices were hypothesized to interact with manageability problems during late childhood to predict change in antisocial behavior during the transition from elementary to middle school. Results indicated that maternal retrospective perceptions of unmanageability predicted observed maternal discipline practices, even when maternal antisocial behavior and depressed mood and the disruptive and antisocial behavior of the boy were statistically controlled. Graphical analyses and latent class growth models indicated that level of temper tantrums interacted with maternal discipline in predicting change in teacher ratings of antisocial behavior. The nature of the interaction indicated that maternal discipline was a risk factor for growth in antisocial behavior only for boys with high levels of tantrums.

Evaluating a prevention program for teenagers on sexual coercion: a differential effectiveness approach.

The authors evaluated a coeducational program for teenagers on preventing sexual coercion in dating situations. Students examined individual and social attitudes underlying coercive sexual behavior and learned communication skills aimed at preventing or dealing with unwanted sexual advances. Instruction was enhanced by video and an interactive video "virtual date." Outcomes were assessed using sexual attitude scales with a sample of 458 high school students. Student health education classes were randomly assigned to either a treatment or a control condition. Findings, based on a latent variable model of differential effectiveness, showed that students in the treatment group with initial coercive attitude scores at or above the mean benefited significantly more than students with the same range of scores in the control group.

Aggression toward female partners by at-risk young men: the contribution of male adolescent friendships.

Deviancy training was examined as a risk factor for physical and psychological aggression toward a female partner among boys and young men in the Oregon Youth Study. Hostile talk about women during videotaped male friendship interactions was hypothesized to indicate a process by which aggression toward women is reinforced within male peer networks. Both antisocial behavior and hostile talk were predicted to be associated with later aggression toward a female partner. Prospective developmental models were tested from 9-10 years of age through young adulthood. Findings indicated that the relation of deviant peer association in adolescence and later aggression toward a partner was mediated by antisocial behavior; observed hostile talk about women with male peers explained additional variance in aggression toward a partner.

Detecting and describing preventive intervention effects in a universal school-based randomized trial targeting delinquent and violent behavior.

This study examined theoretical, methodological, and statistical problems involved in evaluating the outcome of aggression on the playground for a universal preventive intervention for conduct disorder. Moderately aggressive children were hypothesized most likely to benefit. Aggression was measured on the playground using observers blind to the group status of the children. Behavior was micro-coded in real time to minimize potential expectancy biases. The effectiveness of the intervention was strongly related to initial levels of aggressiveness. The most aggressive children improved the most. Models that incorporated corrections for low reliability (the ratio of variance due to true time-stable individual differences to total variance) and censoring (a floor effect in the rate data due to short periods of observation) obtained effect sizes 5 times larger than models without such corrections with respect to children who were initially 2 SDs above the mean on aggressiveness.

Description and immediate impacts of a preventive intervention for conduct problems.

A population-based randomized intervention trial for the prevention of conduct problems (i.e., oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder) is described. The LIFT (Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers) intervention was designed for all first- and fifth-grade elementary school boys and girls and their families living in at-risk neighborhoods characterized by high rates of juvenile delinquency. The 10-week intervention strategy was carefully targeted at proximal and malleable antecedents in three social domains that were identified by a developmental model of conduct problems. From 12 elementary schools, 671 first and fifth graders and their families participated either in the theory-based universal preventive intervention or in a control condition. The intervention consisted of parent training, a classroom-based social skills program, a playground behavioral program, and systematic communication between teachers and parents. A multiple measure assessment strategy was used to evaluate participant satisfaction and participation, fidelity of implementation, and the immediate impacts of the program on targeted antecedents.

Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies.

Group and individual-difference adoption designs lead to opposite conclusions concerning the importance of shared environment (SE) for the child outcomes of IQ and antisocial behavior. This paradox could be due to the range restriction (RR) of family environments (FE) that goes with adoption studies. Measures of FE from 2 of the most recent adoption studies indicate that RR is substantial, about 67%, which corresponds to the top half of a normal FE distribution. RR of 67% cuts effect sizes and R2 statistics by factors of 3 and 2-2.5, respectively. Because selection into an adoption study in inherently a between-family process and assuming that comparable restriction of genetic (G) influences are absent, estimates of SE, G, and nonshared influences will be substantially biased, respectively, down, up, and up by RR. Corrections for RR applied to adoption studies indicate that SE could account for as much as 50% of the variance in IQ.

Co-occurrence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescent boys: III. Prediction to young-adult adjustment.

The prediction of young-adult adjustment from early adolescent conduct problems and depressive symptoms was examined for an at-risk sample of approximately 200 males. Conduct problems and depressive symptoms were expected to show stability to young adulthood. It was predicted that early adolescent conduct problems would be associated with a broad range of adjustment problems in young adulthood due to cumulative adjustment failures. Early adolescent depressive symptoms were expected particularly to predict poor relationships with parents and peers. Additive and interactive effects of the two predictors were examined. Conduct problems and depressive symptoms showed significant stability to young adulthood. Conduct problems were associated with a broad range of adjustment problems including continuing problems in peer associations, substance use, self-esteem, relationships with parents, and new problems in noncompletion of education, unemployment, driver's license suspensions, and causing pregnancies. Depressive symptoms predicted particularly to problems in social relationships. Higher levels of both conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescence did not predict to increased difficulties for any one outcome over either problem alone, either due to main or interaction effects. Such co-occurrence, however, did result in problem outcomes in multiple areas, thus, the poorest adjustment overall.

Comment on "Social contagion, adolescent sexual behavior, and pregnancy: a nonlinear dynamic EMOSA model".

The epidemic model of the onset of social activities (EMOSA model) for adolescent sexuality by J. L. Rodgers, D. C. Rowe, and M. Buster (1998) is examined. Strengths of the model include the nonlinear dynamic specification that seems reasonably realistic and the potential when used as a theoretical tool to generate new hypotheses for further testing at the individual level. Limitations include the lack of a well-developed statistical framework, the inability to include a variety of predictors to capture both social contagion and individual differences in the same model, and the focus on aggregate-level data. The EMOSA model for sexuality can be reparameterized to a hazard rate or an event history model that eliminates these shortcomings. Growth curve analysis represents another analytic alternative for the EMOSA model that also does not have these limitations.

Variables that initiate and maintain an early-onset trajectory for juvenile offending.

A trajectory defined by three time-ordered events was offered as a useful adjunct to building a development theory about antisocial behaviors. A sequence was defined with significant linkages between antisocial childhood behavior and early arrest and between early arrest and chronic offending. The majority of chronic offenders traveled through all three events in the sequence. Each event in the sequence shared a common process of disrupted family process plus frequent family transitions and marked social disadvantage. The findings support the hypothesis that the process that leads to antisocial behaviors at grade four may also maintain the entire sequence. The level of disrupted process at initiation and a time-based measure of involvement with deviant peers predicted which individuals moved forward in the sequence and which did not. The findings are consistent with the idea that the majority of chronic offending juveniles follow a trajectory that can be explained by a single theory.

The analysis of intervention change in children and families: methodological and conceptual issues embedded in intervention studies.

This article provides an overview of methodological and conceptual issues underlying the assessment of change during psychotherapy with children and families. Three central considerations are discussed: (1) What changes do we measure? (2) When do we measure change? (3) How do we measure change? The difficulties with the traditional methods of assessing change are highlighted, and suggestions for a new paradigm that calls for expansion of the nomological network relevant to the analysis of change, as well as the inclusion of more assessment points and more reliable and valid measures of the change process, are presented. Illustrations of key points are provided from the Adolescent Transitions Program, a theoretically based intervention program targeting high-risk youth.

Correcting estimates of shared environmental variance for range restriction in adoption studies using a truncated multivariate normal model.

A model is presented for the truncated trivariate normal distribution that arises in behavior genetic adoption designs that focus on sibling similarity to estimate shared environmental effects. The model estimates the point of truncation and shared environmentality. Both moment and maximum likelihood estimates are obtained numerically. Simulations indicate that the model and the numerical procedures perform well when they are most needed, that is, when shared environmentality is large, truncation is extensive or both. When applied to published data from the Texas Adoption Project, results indicate that the point of truncation is at about the 63rd percentile of the family environmental quality distribution (i.e., the bottom 63% is missing) and shared environmentality is about 55%. Implications for current views on the importance of shared environment for child developmental outcomes such as antisocial behavior and IQ are discussed.

Latent Variable Modeling of Longitudinal and Multilevel Substance Use Data.

This article demonstrates the use of a general model for latent variable growth analysis which takes into account cluster sampling. Multilevel Latent Growth Modeling (MLGR4) was used to analyze longitudinal and multilevel data for adolescent and parent substance use measured at four annual time points. An associative LGM model was tested for alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use with a sample of 435 families. Hypotheses concerning the shape of the growth curve and the extent of individual differences in the common trajectory over time were tested. The effects of marital and family status and socio-economic status on family levels of substance use were also examined. Findings are discussed in terms of family-level substance use and similarities in developmental trajectories across substances, and the impact of contextual factors on family levels of substance use and development.

Predicting the timing of first sexual intercourse for at-risk adolescent males.

Event history analysis was used to test a developmental model of the timing of first sexual intercourse in the Oregon Youth Study sample of adolescent males at risk for delinquency. The event history models spanned grades 7-12 with yearly multimethod, multiagent measures. A 3-step mediational model of predictors was tested, including contextual and process factors and boys' characteristics. Predictors included one-time measures of socioeconomic status, parental antisocial behavior, and time-varying measures of parental transitions, parental monitoring, deviant peer association, and the boys' antisocial/delinquent behavior, substance use, physical maturation, academic achievement, and anxiety. As predicted, antisocial/delinquent behavior and substance use along with early physical maturity and parental transitions predicted early onset of sexual intercourse. Anxiety was related to delay of first intercourse. Results and intervention implications are discussed in terms of the developmental findings.

Parent substance use as a predictor of adolescent use: A six-year lagged analysis.

The present study investigated the role of parental use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana on lagged changes in the specific substance use of their adolescent offspring over a six-year period. The analyses also examined the relative influence of mothers and fathers and their interaction as moderated by marital status and age and gender of the adolescent. A generalized estimating equations approach, analogous to quasi-like-lihood, was employed to estimate regression coefficients via an iterative weighted least squares algorithm. Findings indicated that, when employed as time-varying covariates, parental substance use resulted in substance-specific effects on fluctuations in the adolescent's own use. Age, parent marital status, and each parent's marijuana use independently were jound to significantly affect adolescent marijuana use. In contrast, the complex relationship between parent and adolescent use of alcohol and cigarettes showed variation by substance, age, and gender of both parents and adolescents. Within a developmental context, the results suggest that parent use of substances must be considered risk factors with particular effects on their younger offspring. Thus, prevention efforts should be directed at middle childhood and include components aimed at parents as well as their children.

An Analysis of the Relationship Between Parent and Adolescent Marijuana Use Via Generalized Estimating Equation Methodology.

Although longitudinal designs are uniquely suited to the study of individual change over time, standard multivariate statistical methods often perform poorly when faced with common characteristics of longitudinal data such as correlated observations and missing observations. The purpose of the present study was to demonstrate the utility of a generalized estimating equations approach to the analysis of longitudinal data, while investigating the role of parent marijuana use on lagged changes in the marijuana use of their adolescent children over a 6- year period. In addition, the existence of significant trends in use was examined. Findings indicated that, over time, parental use of marijuana was positively related to their adolescent's use of the same substance, although there were significant differences in the strength of the relationship across gender and age groups. Results are discussed with reference to the importance and utility of the generalized estimating equations approach to the analysis of longitudinal data.

Antisocial Behavior, Delinquent Peer Association, and Unsupervised Wandering for Boys: Growth and Change from Childhood to Early Adolescence.

Latent growth curve analysis was used to study individual differences in initial status and growth rates of antisocial behavior, delinquent peer association, and unsupervised wandering during the transition from childhood to early adolescence for a sample of 206, primarily working-class, European-American boys. All three constructs showed significant individual differences in initial status at Grade 4 and growth rates from Grade 4 to Grade 8. Wandering and delinquent peer association showed positive mean trends. Linear growth curves adequately described growth for delinquent peer association and antisocial behavior. Growth on wandering was linear up to Grade 7 and then showed positive acceleration from Grade 7 to Grade 8. All three constructs were highly related at the initial assessment point. Individual differences in growth rates were highly correlated on all three constructs. The findings were discussed in terms of the trait-confluence model for peer influence on antisocial behavior.

Some problems and solutions in the study of change: significant patterns in client resistance.

Latent growth curve methodology was applied to the study of patterns of change in client resistance during parent training therapy. The clinical sample consisted of 68 mothers of children, 52 boys and 16 girls, ages 5 through 12 years, with confirmed conduct problems. Simple linear and linear spline growth models were fit to the three repeated observational measures of maternal resistance during therapy and found inadequate. Instead, a quadratic growth model was used. Pretherapy maternal characteristics of inept discipline and antisocial behavior predicted chronically high levels of resistance. Maternal depressed mood predicted less negative quadratic curvature. No significant predictors of overall change in resistance were detected. Lack of negative curvature of the resistance growth curves predicted child court offenses during a 2-year posttermination follow-up. Results are discussed with reference to the struggle-and-working-through hypothesis of client resistance.

Modeling social and psychological determinants of exercise behaviors via structural equation systems.

Recent advances in structural modeling techniques allow for the testing of complex models representing social and behavioral processes. However, most reported applications in sport and physical activity have been limited to simple models involving variables measured at a single point in time. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to demonstrate the use of both cross-sectional and longitudinal latent variable modeling techniques by examining the relationships among efficacy cognitions, social support, and the exercise behaviors of sedentary adults. Results revealed a good fit for the re-specified model, suggesting the existence of a lagged feedback mechanism in which exercise behaviors influenced residual change in social support. In turn, efficacy cognitions appeared to serve a mediational function in the synchronous relationship between social support and exercise behavior. Findings are discussed in terms of the utility of structural equation modeling techniques for understanding the complex social and cognitive processes involved in exercise behavior.

Replications of a dual failure model for boys' depressed mood.

A structural equation model for depressed mood was examined for three samples of boys (N = 317) from at-risk families. It was assumed that rejection by normal peers and academic failure were significant covariates for preadolescent boys' depressed mood. The model accounted for from 51% to 68% of the variance in the criterion construct. The confirmatory factor analyses showed an adequate fit of the measurement model to the data sets for each of the three samples. The hypothesized negative path coefficients from the good peer relations construct to the child depressed mood construct were significant for all three samples. The path from the academic skills construct to the child depressed mood construct, however, was highly variable and significant for only two of the samples. Multigroup comparisons were carried out to determine the degree to which the factor loadings and the structural relations between constructs were invariant across the three samples.