RESUMEN
The recent emergence of the pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) is associated with rapid population declines of salamanders in Europe and its arrival to new areas could cause dramatic negative effects on other amphibian populations and species. Amphibian species, present in areas with high amphibian diversity such as Mexico, could be highly threatened due to the arrival of Bsal, particularly salamander species which are more vulnerable to chytridiomycosis caused by this pathogen. Thus, immediate surveillance is needed as a strategy to efficiently contend with this emerging infectious disease. In this study, we analyzed 490 wild and captive amphibians from 48 species across 76 sites in the North, Central, and South of Mexico to evaluate the presence of Bsal. Amphibians were sampled in sites with variable degrees of amphibian richness and suitability for Bsal according to previous studies. From the 76 sampling sites, 10 of them were located in areas with high amphibian richness and potential moderate to high Bsal habitat suitability. We did not detect Bsal in any of the samples, and no signs of the disease were observed in any individual at the time of sampling. Our results suggest that Bsal has not yet arrived at the sampled sites or could be at low prevalence within populations with low occurrence probability. This is the first study that evaluates the presence of Bsal in different regions and amphibian species in Mexico, which is the second most diverse country in salamander species in the world. We highlight the risk and the importance of continuing surveillance of Bsal in Mexico and discuss control strategies to avoid the introduction and spread of Bsal in the country.
Asunto(s)
Quitridiomicetos , Animales , México/epidemiología , Anfibios/microbiología , Batrachochytrium , Urodelos/microbiologíaRESUMEN
ResumenLa perturbación del hábitat puede modificar los microhábitats y por lo tanto tener un marcado efecto en la abundancia y distribución de especies de anuros, en particular en aquellas asociadas a microhábitats específicos. En el presente estudio evaluamos cambios en el uso del microhábitat de dos especies sintópicas de ranas arborícolas, Agalychnis dacnicolor y Smilisca fodiens a lo largo de un gradiente sucesional del bosque tropical seco (BTS). Nuestra hipótesis fue que debido a que estas dos especies son generalistas de hábitat, modificarían el uso del microhábitat en respuesta a la sucesión secundaria del BTS y la temporada climática (TC). Aunque ambas especies se registraron en los bosques secundarios y en los bosques maduros, A. dacnicolor prefirió el bosque maduro mientras que S. fodiens prefirió los lugares perturbados. Ninguna de las dos especies presentaron diferencias en biomasa entre los estadios sucesionales (ES), ni entre temporadas climáticas. A diferencia de S. fodiens la rana A. dacnicolor presentó mayores tallas durante la temporada de lluvias. La temperatura corporal de ambas especies varió entre ES y temporada climática. S. fodiens presentó una temperatura mas constante entre individuos en los pastizales, mientras que A. dacnicolor en los bosques maduros. Las variables ambientales y estructurales del hábitat que influyeron en la presencia de ambas especies dentro de los diferentes ES fueron la temperatura del sustrato, altura del árbol o arbusto donde se encontraba perchando el individuo y los porcentajes de cobertura de hojarasca, herbáceas, arbustos, árboles y suelo desnudo. Las variables que mejor explicaron la biomasa, la longitud hocico-cloaca (LHC) y la temperatura corporal de S. fodiens fueron las ramas secas y la temperatura del sustrato y en A. dacnicolor la biomasa estuvo mejor explicada por las herbáceas, LHC, la altura del árbol o arbusto donde la rana perchaba, y la temperatura corporal por la temperatura del sustrato. Ambas especies usaron de manera diferencial las variables ambientales y estructurales del microhábitat conforme los ES aumentaron en edad. Las variables que separaron a las especies fueron la altura del refugio o percha y el porcentaje de árboles en los diferentes ES. A. dacnicolor mantuvo preferencia por los estratos mas bajos de la vegetación, mientras que S. fodiens mostró una amplia plasticidad en el uso del microhábitat, en particular modificó el uso en la altura del refugio o percha. Nuestros resultados sugieren que aunque ambas especies han sido consideradas generalistas de hábitat, en los paisajes antropizados A. dacnicolor es una especie especialista del microhábitat y S. fodiens es una especie con mayor plasticidad ecológica en el uso del microhábitat. Estas diferencias en el uso del microhábitat en respuesta a la perturbación del hábitat pueden ayudar a explicar el éxito de las especies en estos nuevos paisajes, así como la importancia de los bosques secundarios en distintas etapas de sucesión para mantener microhábitats adecuados para la permanencia de las especies en los paisajes antropizados.
AbstractHabitat disturbance can modify microhabitats and therefore have a significant effect on the abundance and distribution of anurans species, particularly those associated to specific microhabitats. In this study we evaluated changes in the use of microhabitat by two syntopic species of tree frogs, Agalychnis dacnicolor and Smilisca fodiens along a successional gradient of Tropical Dry Forest in the region of the Biosphere Reserve of Chamela-Cuixmala at the coast of Jalisco, Mexico. We hypothesized that because these two species are habitat generalists, microhabitat use would change in response to secondary forest succession and to the climatic season of the year. Although both species were registered in both secondary and mature forests, A. dacnicolor was associated to mature forest, whereas S. fodiens was more associated to disturbed sites. Neither species showed differences in biomass among successional stages (ES) or between climatic seasons. Unlike S. fodiens, A. dacnicolor presented larger sizes during the rainy season. Body temperature of both species varied between ES and climatic season. S. fodiens presented a more constant temperature among individuals in pastures, while A. dacnicolor in mature forests. Environmental and structural habitat variables that influenced the presence of both species in ES were substrate temperature, height of tree or shrub where the frog was perching and percentage cover of litter, grasses, shrubs, trees and bare soil. The variables that best explained biomass, snout-vent length (LHC) and body temperature of S. fodiens were cover of dry branches and substrate temperature, whereas biomass of A. dacnicolor was better explained by cover of herbs, LHC, height of the tree or shrub where the frog was perching, body temperature and the substrate temperature. Both species used differentially environmental and structural variables of microhabitats along the gradient of initial to late ES. The variables that separated the species were the height of the shelter or perch and the percentage of trees in different ES. Whereas A. dacnicolor was more associated to the lowest strata of vegetation, S. fodiens showed plasticity in microhabitat use, especially in height of shelter or perch. Our results suggested that even when both species are considered habitat generalists, in anthropic landscapes, A. dacnicolor is specialist in microhabitat use, whereas S. fodiens is a species with greater ecological plasticity in microhabitat use. These differences in microhabitat use in response to habitat disturbance may help explain the success of these species in these new landscapes, as well as the importance of secondary forests in different stages of succession to maintain adequate microhabitats for the permanence of species in anthropogenic landscapes.
RESUMEN
We explored the impact of forest conversion to agricultural mosaic on anuran, lizard, snake, and turtle assemblages of Neotropical dry forests. Over 2 years, we sampled 6 small watersheds on the west coast of Mexico, 3 conserved and 3 disturbed. The disturbed watersheds were characterized by a mosaic of pastures and cultivated fields (corn, beans, squash) intermingled with patches of different successional stages of dry forest. In each watershed, we conducted 11 diurnal and nocturnal time-constrained searches in 10 randomly established plots. We considered vulnerability traits of species in relation to habitat modification. Eighteen anuran, 18 lizard, 23 snake, and 3 turtle species were recorded. Thirty-six species (58%) occurred in both forest conditions, and 14 (22%) and 12 species (19%) occurred only in the conserved and disturbed sites, respectively. Assemblages responded differently to disturbance. Species richness, diversity, and abundance of lizards were higher in disturbed forests. Anuran diversity and species richness were lower in disturbed forest but abundance was similar in both forest conditions. Diversity, richness, and abundance of turtles were lower in disturbed forest. The structure and composition of snake assemblages did not differ between forest conditions. We considered species disturbance sensitive if their abundance was significantly less in disturbed areas. Four anuran (22%), 2 lizard (11%), and 3 turtle (100%) species were sensitive to disturbance. No snake species was sensitive. The decline in abundance of disturbance-sensitive species was associated with the reduction of forest canopy cover, woody stem cover, roots, and litter-layer ground cover. Anuran species with small body size and direct embryonic development were especially sensitive to forest disturbance. An important goal for the conservation of herpetofauna should be the determination of species traits associated with extinction or persistence in agricultural mosaics.