Drivers of the socio-economic disadvantage gap in England: Sequential pathways that include the home learning environment and self-regulation as mediators.

BACKGROUND: Socio-economic status (SES) is a powerful predictor of attainment. Research has identified multiple mechanisms that underpin the effect of SES on attainment. For example, self-regulation (processes through which individuals direct and control their attention, emotion and behaviour) has been identified as one mechanism mediating the SES attainment gap. However, previous studies have not directly tested the statistical pathways by which children from lower SES backgrounds develop low self-regulation skills and subsequently poor attainment at the end of primary school. Adding the home learning environment, which is associated with both SES and self-regulation, further fleshes out the longitudinal pathways. AIMS: We propose and test a new model where the relationship between SES and school attainment is sequentially mediated by the family home learning environment and the child's self-regulation. SAMPLE: This study uses the Effective Pre-school, Primary and Secondary Education data set to study 2311 English children. METHODS: We measured SES (via socio-economic disadvantage) based on an index of low parental education, occupation and income at age 3+. The home learning environment was measured by the Home Learning Environment Index at age 3+; self-regulation was a teacher report on the Child Social Behaviour Questionnaire at age 4+ and attainment was measured via scores on national assessments of English and Maths at age 11. RESULTS: Our measure of disadvantage predicted attainment. The home learning environment predicted children's self-regulation skills. The relationship between disadvantage and attainment was sequentially mediated by the home learning environment and self-regulation. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that home learning environment and self-regulation may play a sequential role in perpetuating socio-economic disparities in education.

Academic help-seeking interactions in the classroom: A microlongitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Help-seeking research has traditionally inferred behavioural responses to the need for help from post-hoc reflections and experiments outside of the classroom context. AIM: We aimed to gain an ecologically valid understanding of the help-seeking process by examining the association between pupils' task-specific perceptions and their help-seeking interactions with teachers and peers during lessons. SAMPLE: Participants were 290 pupils in Years 4-6 (aged 8.22-11.48) and 12 teachers in 12 classrooms in three schools across two local authorities in South East England, UK. METHOD: The microlongitudinal data consisted of 6,592 task-specific reports. Pupils reported on their task understanding and need for help and their help-seeking (teacher and peer) and help-giving behaviours at the end of each lesson. On average, pupils completed 25.44 reports across 14.64 lessons, 13 school subjects and 4.80 days. Teachers reported on pupils' academic performance. Data were analysed using two-level logistic and multinomial logistic regressions. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Task-specific understanding and need for help were associated with help-seeking and help-giving behaviour during lessons. Understanding was associated also with the type of help sought and given among classmates and appeared to influence whether pupils were help-seekers or help-givers during peer interactions. There was an apparent reciprocity in peer help-seeking interactions, occurring namely among girls and higher performers. Overall, girls were more likely than boys to seek and give help across tasks. Pupils for whom English was an additional language were less likely than classmates to seek help when they needed it. The study (1) sheds new light on the dynamics of everyday help-seeking interactions in the classroom, (2) provides a conceptual framework for researchers interested in reciprocal processes of social interaction in self-regulated learning, and (3) highlights groups who might benefit from intervention.

Initial protocol for a national evaluation of an area-based intervention programme (A Better Start) on early-life outcomes: a longitudinal cohort study with comparison (control) cohort samples.

INTRODUCTION: Pregnancy and the first few years of a child's life are important windows of opportunity in which to equalise life chances. A Better Start (ABS) is an area-based intervention being delivered in five areas of socioeconomic disadvantage across England. This protocol describes an evaluation of the impact and cost-effectiveness of ABS. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The evaluation of ABS comprises a mixed-methods design including impact, cost-effectiveness and process components. It involves a cohort study in the 5 ABS areas and 15 matched comparison sites (n=2885), beginning in pregnancy in 2017 and ending in 2024 when the child is age 7, with a separate cross-sectional baseline survey in 2016/2017. Process data will include a profiling of the structure and services being provided in the five ABS sites at baseline and yearly thereafter, and data regarding the participating families and the services that they receive. Eligible participants will include pregnant women living within the designated sites, with recruitment beginning at 16 weeks of pregnancy. Data collection will involve interviewer-administered and self-completion surveys at eight time points. Primary outcomes include nutrition, socioemotional development, speech, language and learning. Data analysis will include the use of propensity score techniques to construct matched programme and comparison groups, and a range of statistical techniques to calculate the difference in differences between the intervention and comparison groups. The economic evaluation will involve a within-cohort study economic evaluation to compare individual-level costs and outcomes, and a decision analytic cost-effectiveness model to estimate the expected incremental cost per unit change in primary outcomes for ABS in comparison to usual care. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval to conduct the study has been obtained. The learning and dissemination workstream involves working within and across the sites to generate learning via communities of practice and a range of learning and dissemination events.

The relative importance of two different mathematical abilities to mathematical achievement.

BACKGROUND: Two distinct abilities, mathematical reasoning and arithmetic skill, might make separate and specific contributions to mathematical achievement. However, there is little evidence to inform theory and educational practice on this matter. AIMS: The aims of this study were (1) to assess whether mathematical reasoning and arithmetic make independent contributions to the longitudinal prediction of mathematical achievement over 5 years and (2) to test the specificity of this prediction. SAMPLE: Data from Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) were available on 2,579 participants for analyses of KS2 achievement and on 1,680 for the analyses of KS3 achievement. METHOD: Hierarchical regression analyses were used to assess the independence and specificity of the contribution of mathematical reasoning and arithmetic skill to the prediction of achievement in KS2 and KS3 mathematics, science, and English. Age, intelligence, and working memory (WM) were controls in these analyses. RESULTS: Mathematical reasoning and arithmetic did make independent contributions to the prediction of mathematical achievement; mathematical reasoning was by far the stronger predictor of the two. These predictions were specific in so far as these measures were more strongly related to mathematics than to science or English. Intelligence and WM were non-specific predictors; intelligence contributed more to the prediction of science than of maths, and WM predicted maths and English equally well. CONCLUSIONS: There is clear justification for making a distinction between mathematical reasoning and arithmetic skills. The implication is that schools must plan explicitly to improve mathematical reasoning as well as arithmetic skills.

Effects of early child-care on cognition, language, and task-related behaviours at 18 months: an English study.

This study investigated the effects of different characteristics of early child-care in England on the development of cognition, language, and task-related attention and behaviour (orientation/engagement and emotion regulation during the Bayley assessment) at 18 months. Data were drawn from a prospective longitudinal study of 1,201 infants. As found in previous studies, socio-demographic characteristics and maternal caregiving (especially 'opportunities for stimulation') were significant predictors of all child outcomes. There were also effects of quantity of individual and group care, and quality of non-maternal care. Controlling for demographics and maternal caregiving, more hours of group care (nurseries) were related to higher cognitive scores, while more hours of individual care (e.g., grandparents, nannies etc.) were related to lower orientation/engagement scores. Non-maternal caregiving was observed in a subsample of 345 children, and after controlling for all covariates as well as quantity and stability of care, quality of care was found to be predictive of higher cognitive ability and better orientation/engagement. Although the effect sizes were small in magnitude, in line with other similar studies, such modest effects from a large English sample are important when viewed in light of the widespread use of non-maternal care during infancy and early childhood.

Parent support, peer support, and peer acceptance in healthy lifestyle for asthma management among early adolescents.

PURPOSE: This study aims to investigate the association between social support variables and healthy lifestyle for asthma management among early adolescents (ages 9-14 years). DESIGN AND METHODS: Questionnaires were completed by 86 parent-adolescent dyads. RESULTS: Healthy lifestyle was associated with social support variables. The association with peer acceptance was stronger among adolescents who received less asthma-specific support from peers. Age was negatively associated with healthy lifestyle, but the association was attenuated after adjustment for asthma-specific peer support. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: The findings of this study suggest recognizing the developmental change of social support during early adolescence.

Measuring the combined risk to young children's cognitive development: an alternative to cumulative indices.

In studies of child development, the combined effect of multiple risks acting in unison has been represented in a variety of ways. This investigation builds upon this preceding work and presents a new procedure for capturing the combined effect of multiple risks. A representative sample of 2,899 British children had their cognitive development measured at 36 and 58 months of age along with 10 potential risks during this period of development. Comparing a cumulative index of these risks against the previously undocumented alternative of confirmatory factor analysis using formative measurement, this study found differences favouring the factor analysis. The factor analysis procedure demonstrated greater predictive power of children's cognitive development while it systematically tested two of the assumptions implicit in cumulative risk indices.

Randomised controlled trial of parent groups for child antisocial behaviour targeting multiple risk factors: the SPOKES project.

BACKGROUND: There is a pressing need for cost-effective population-based interventions to tackle early-onset antisocial behaviour. As this is determined by many factors, it would seem logical to devise interventions that address several influences while using an efficient means of delivery. The aim of this trial was to change four risk factors that predict poor outcome: ineffective parenting, conduct problems, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, and low reading ability. METHODS: A randomised controlled trial was carried out in eight schools in London, England. Nine hundred and thirty-six (936) 6-year-old children were screened for antisocial behaviour, then parents of 112 high scorers were randomised to parenting groups held in schools or control; 109 were followed up a year later. The intervention lasted 28 weeks and was novel as it had components to address both child behaviour (through the Incredible Years programme) and child literacy (through a new 'SPOKES' programme to help parents read with their children). Fidelity of implementation was emphasised by careful training of therapists and weekly supervision. Controls received an information helpline. Assessment of conduct problems was by parent interview, parenting by direct observation and child reading by psychometric testing. RESULTS: At follow-up parents allocated to the intervention used play, praise and rewards, and time out more often than controls, and harsh discipline less; effect sizes ranged from .31 to .59 sd (p-values .046 to .005). Compared to control children, whose behaviour didn't change, intervention children's conduct problems reduced by .52sd, (p < .001), dropping from the 80th to the 61st percentile; oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) halved from 60% to 31% (p = .003). ADHD symptoms reduced by .44sd (p = .002), and reading age improved by six months (.36sd, p = .027). Teacher-rated behaviour didn't change. The programme cost pound2,380 ($3,800) per child. CONCLUSIONS: Effective population-based early intervention to improve the functioning of with antisocial behaviour is practically feasible by targeting multiple risk factors and emphasising implementation fidelity.

Peer stress-related coping activities in young adolescents' asthma management.

Managing asthma around peers can be stressful for young adolescents (age 9-14). However, the contexualised coping activities under asthma management-related peer stress is under-investigated. The study aims to explore the peer stress-related coping strategies young adolescents adopt in asthma management. Thirty-four young adolescents were interviewed with semi-structured storytelling protocols. Young adolescents expressed their opinions about four scenarios where the characters had difficulties managing asthma among peers. Interviews were transcribed, and qualitative data were analysed with analytical induction and constant comparison to generate themes that described the coping activities young adolescents adopted in four asthma management scenarios. Young adolescents' responses in each scenario were summarised. The coping activities adolescents adopted were cognitive justifying, explaining, outsourcing and undisclosing. Despite the limitations in a scenario-based qualitative study, the results may be useful for teachers and health professionals in social skill interventions for asthma management in early adolescence.

Mediators of change following a senior school physical activity intervention.

It has been suggested that the low level of effectiveness of youth interventions is due to a lack of knowledge regarding the mechanisms responsible for behaviour change. The identification of behaviour mediators is necessary for the progression of physical activity research, as it allows researchers to determine which components of an intervention are responsible for mediating behaviour change. The purpose of this study was to identify mediators of behaviour change in a physical activity intervention for senior school students. Participants (n=78) were randomly allocated to control or intervention conditions for a period of 10 weeks. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and potential mediators were assessed at baseline and post-intervention (10 weeks). Hypothesized mediators were derived from Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and included: peer support, exercise self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. Mediation was assessed using the product-of-coefficients test described by MacKinnon and colleagues, based on the criteria for mediation identified by Baron and Kenny. While none of the variables satisfied all four criteria for mediation among males or females, self-efficacy was able to satisfy the first three criteria among females in the study. Exercise self-efficacy may be a mediator of physical activity behaviour in adolescent girls.

Training parents to help their children read: a randomized control trial.

BACKGROUND: Low levels of literacy and high levels of behaviour problems in middle childhood often co-occur. These persistent difficulties pose a risk to academic and social development, leading to social exclusion in adulthood. Although parent-training programmes have been shown to be effective in enabling parents to support their children's development, very few parent interventions offer a combination of behavioural and literacy training. AIMS: This paper (1) reports on a prevention programme which aimed to tackle behaviour and literacy problems in children at the beginning of school, and (2) presents the effects of the intervention on children's literacy. SAMPLE: One hundred and four 5- and 6-year-old children selected from eight schools in an inner city disadvantaged community in London participated in the intervention. METHODS: This is a randomized control trial with pre- and post-measurements designed to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention. The behavioural intervention consisted of the 'Incredible Years' group parenting programme combined with a new programme designed to train parents to support their children's reading at home. RESULTS: Analyses demonstrated a significant effect of the intervention on children's word reading and writing skills, as well as parents' use of reading strategies with their children. CONCLUSION: A structured multicomponent preventive package delivered with attention to fidelity can enable parents to support their children's reading at home and increase their literacy skills. Together with the improvement in child behaviour, these changes could improve the life chances of children in disadvantaged communities.

Parent-infant interaction: a growth model approach.

The aim of this study is to compare the interaction of fathers and mothers with their 10-12 months old infants (n=97; parental sensitivity and mood, and infant mood) during five structured contiguous play segments, and to examine the utility of individual growth modeling. Conventional comparison of means across play-segments showed that parents were equally responsive, but mothers were happier than fathers, and infants were equally happy during interaction with both parents. Sensitivity and mood were more strongly related for mothers than for fathers. Uni- and multivariate growth models revealed fine-grained patterns not seen in conventional analysis: (a) parental and infant mood decreased across play more for mothers than for fathers, (b) parental sensitivity in one play-segment predicted parental mood and infant mood in the next segment, (c) change in infants' mood was related to change in sensitivity in mothers, and to change in mood in fathers, and (d) mothers' sensitive interaction with the infant was predicted by family socio-demographic background.

The Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Revisited.

This review describes the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME). After describing the structure of the instrument, it shows how it has been used successfully in studies on normally developing children and on samples drawn from high-risk populations. These are followed by studies showing how the HOME has been used to evaluate interventions. Although most interventions are not designed primarily on the basis of the HOME outcomes, the instrument has been used as a measure of the effectiveness of the intervention schedule. HOME has been used extensively in research to reveal relationships between several aspects of the home environment and children's developmental outcomes. The very good relationship between HOME scores and children's measures of developmental competence has also been found in non-normative populations and research has attempted to identify the specific aspects of the home environment, as indexed by the HOME subscales that reveal the strengths or the weaknesses of homes of at-risk populations.