Feather mercury content of grey-faced petrels (Pterodroma gouldi): Relationships with age, breeding success, and foraging behaviour, in known age individuals.

Seabirds have been touted as excellent bioindicators of mercury pollution. We utilised grey-faced petrel (Pterodroma gouldi) feathers to assess interannual differences in total mercury (THg) concentrations in adults (2020-2021) and chicks (2019-2021) breeding in the Auckland region of New Zealand. For adults, we also correlated feather THg with bird age (3-37+ years) and breeding outcome (i.e., Non breeder, Egg failed, Chick reared) recorded for that season i.e., 2020 and 2021. Interannual differences in chick feather THg were matched with bulk stable isotopes (δ13C, δ15N) to map the influence of adult foraging behaviour on chick feather THg values. Adult feather THg levels were similar across the years investigated i.e., mean ± S.D. 38.2 ± 12.8 (2020), and 39.5 ± 14.7 (2021) ug g-1 (some of the highest THg values recorded for seabirds). A slight, but significant decrease in THg accumulation was evident as age increased but feather THg had no significant influence on breeding outcome. Interannual differences in chick feather THg concentrations were 7.78 ± 1.6 (2019), 4.23 ± 1.45 (2020) and 6.97 ± 4.41 (2021) µg g-1, (p < 0.01); and correlated with a significantly lower δ13C value i.e., -17.2 ± 0.4 ‰ (2019), -17.8 ± 0.3 ‰ (2020) and -17.6 ± 0.2 ‰ (2021). This suggests that the lower feather THg values in 2020 chicks resulted from more oceanic, rather than shelf-edge, prey being consumed by chicks that year. Values of δ15N in chick feathers remained consistent among years i.e., 15.2 ± 1.2 ‰ (2019), 15.2 ± 0.2 ‰ (2020) and 15.3 ‰ (± 0.4). Due to these interannual differences, we recommend using grey-faced petrel chicks to monitor Hg pollution over adults. Chicks are also subject to cultural harvests by Maori communities, offering partnership opportunities to generate mutually beneficial information streams for Maori communities and scientists alike.

Whole-genome and transcriptome analysis enhances precision cancer treatment options.

BACKGROUND: Recent advances are enabling delivery of precision genomic medicine to cancer clinics. While the majority of approaches profile panels of selected genes or hotspot regions, comprehensive data provided by whole-genome and transcriptome sequencing and analysis (WGTA) present an opportunity to align a much larger proportion of patients to therapies. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Samples from 570 patients with advanced or metastatic cancer of diverse types enrolled in the Personalized OncoGenomics (POG) program underwent WGTA. DNA-based data, including mutations, copy number and mutation signatures, were combined with RNA-based data, including gene expression and fusions, to generate comprehensive WGTA profiles. A multidisciplinary molecular tumour board used WGTA profiles to identify and prioritize clinically actionable alterations and inform therapy. Patient responses to WGTA-informed therapies were collected. RESULTS: Clinically actionable targets were identified for 83% of patients, of which 37% of patients received WGTA-informed treatments. RNA expression data were particularly informative, contributing to 67% of WGTA-informed treatments; 25% of treatments were informed by RNA expression alone. Of a total 248 WGTA-informed treatments, 46% resulted in clinical benefit. RNA expression data were comparable to DNA-based mutation and copy number data in aligning to clinically beneficial treatments. Genome signatures also guided therapeutics including platinum, poly-ADP ribose polymerase inhibitors and immunotherapies. Patients accessed WGTA-informed treatments through clinical trials (19%), off-label use (35%) and as standard therapies (46%) including those which would not otherwise have been the next choice of therapy, demonstrating the utility of genomic information to direct use of chemotherapies as well as targeted therapies. CONCLUSIONS: Integrating RNA expression and genome data illuminated treatment options that resulted in 46% of treated patients experiencing positive clinical benefit, supporting the use of comprehensive WGTA profiling in clinical cancer care.

Thiothymidine combined with UVA as a potential novel therapy for bladder cancer.

BACKGROUND: Thiothymidine (S(4)TdR) can be incorporated into DNA and sensitise cells to DNA damage and cell death following exposure to UVA light. Studies were performed to determine if the combination of S(4)TdR and UVA could be an effective treatment for bladder cancer. METHODS: Uptake and incorporation of S(4)TdR was determined in rat and human bladder tumour cell lines. Measures of DNA crosslinking and apoptosis were also performed. In vivo activity of the combination of S(4)TdR and UVA was investigated in an orthotopic model of bladder cancer in rats. RESULTS: Thiothymidine (200 µM) replaced up to 0.63% of thymidine in rat and tumour bladder cancer cells. The combination of S(4)TdR (10-200 µM) and UVA (1-5 kJ m(-2)) caused apoptosis and cell death at doses that were not toxic alone. Addition of raltitrexed (Astra Zeneca, Alderley Edge, Cheshire, UK) increased the incorporation of S(4)TdR into DNA (up to 20-fold at IC(5)) and further sensitised cells to UVA. Cytotoxic effect was associated with crosslinking of DNA, at least partially to protein. Intravenous administration of S(4)TdR, in combination with UVA delivered directly to the bladder, resulted in an antitumour effect in three of five animals treated. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that the combination of S(4)TdR and UVA has potential as a treatment for bladder cancer, and give some insight into the mechanism of action. Further work is necessary to optimise the delivery of the two components.

Non-precocial grey-faced petrel chicks (Pterodroma macroptera gouldi) show no age-related variation in corticosterone responses to capture and handling.

Development patterns in birds range from precocial species, which hatch chicks largely capable of independent existence, to altricial species, chicks of which are highly dependent on their parents for extended periods. Previous work indicates precocial chicks have a robust corticosterone response from hatching whereas non-precocial and altricial chicks have a small response that increases through development. Grey-faced petrels are characteristic of most burrowing procellariiform seabirds with non-precocial chicks that are unable to locomote and are dependent on adults for food, although chicks have well developed downy plumage and can thermoregulate at or soon after hatching. Initial plasma corticosterone concentrations and corticosterone responses to handling were measured during development in semi-precocial grey-faced petrel (Pterodroma macroptera gouldi) chicks to determine whether they showed a precocial or altricial corticosterone response pattern. Chicks were sampled at six intervals through development from shortly after hatching until close to fledging. Mean corticosterone responses to handling after 30 min were high (115.9+/-10.7 ng/ml) from 2 to 4d after hatching and remained high throughout development (70-110 ng/ml). Contrary to expectations for non-precocial chicks, this pattern of corticosterone responses to handling indicates that grey-faced petrel chicks are able to perceive and respond to potential stressors from hatching, a response previously only demonstrated for precocial birds.

Fate of foodborne pathogens on green onions and tomatoes by electrolysed water.

AIMS: To investigate the efficacy of electrolysed water (EW) in killing Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes on the surfaces of spot-inoculated green onions and tomatoes. METHODS AND RESULTS: Green onions and tomatoes were inoculated with a cocktail of three strains each of E. coli O157:H7, Salm. typhimurium and L. monocytogenes and treated with acidic electrolysed water (AC-EW), alkaline electrolysed water (AK-EW), alkaline electrolysed water followed by acidic electrolysed water (AK-EW + AC-EW), deionized water followed by acidic electrolysed water (DW + AC-EW) and deionized water (control, DW) for 15 s, 30 s, 1 min, 3 min and 5 min at room temperature (22 +/- 2 degrees C). The relative efficacy of reduction was AC-EW > DW + AC-EW approximately AK-EW + AC-EW > AK-EW > DW. CONCLUSIONS: Acidic EW treatment was able to significantly reduce populations of the three tested pathogens from the surfaces of green onions and tomatoes with increasing exposure time. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Rinsing in acidic EW reveals an effective method to control the presence of E. coli O157:H7, Salm. typhimurium and L. monocytogenes on the surfaces of fresh green onions and tomatoes, without affecting their organoleptic characteristics. This indicates its potential application for the decontamination of fresh produce surfaces.

Effect of electrolyzed water for reduction of foodborne pathogens on lettuce and spinach.

The ability of electrolyzed water (EW) to inactivate foodborne pathogens on the surfaces of lettuce and spinach was investigated. Lettuce and spinach leaves were inoculated with a cocktail of 3 strains each of Escherichia col O157:H7, Salmnonella Typhimurium, and Listeria monocytogenes and treated with acidic electrolyzed water (AC-EW), alkaline electrolyzed water (AK-EW), alkaline electrolyzed water followed by acidic electrolyzed water (sequential treatment, AK-EW + AC-EW), deionized water followed by acidic electrolyzed water (sequential treatment, DW + AC-EW), and deionized water (control, DW) for 15, 30 s, and 1, 3, and 5 min at room temperature (22 +/- 2 degrees C). For all 3 pathogens, the same pattern of microbial reduction on lettuce and spinach were apparent. The relative efficacy of reduction was AC-EW > DW + AC-EW approximately = AK-EW + AC-EW > AK-EW > control. After a 3-min treatment of AC-EW, the 3 tested pathogens were reduced below the detection limit (0.7 log). DW + AC-EW and AK-EW + AC-EW produced the same levels of reduction after 5 min when compared to the control. AK-EW did not reduce levels of pathogens even after a 5-min treatment on lettuce and spinach. Results suggest that AC-EW treatment was able to significantly reduce populations of the 3 tested pathogens from the surfaces of lettuce and spinach with increasing time of exposure.

Effects of organic matter on acidic electrolysed water for reduction of foodborne pathogens on lettuce and spinach.

AIMS: To evaluate the efficacy of acidic electrolysed water (EW) in the presence of organic matter (bovine serum) on the inoculated surfaces of lettuce and spinach. MATERIALS AND RESULTS: Lettuce and spinach leaves were inoculated with a cocktail of three strains each of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes and treated with deionized water, acidic EW and acidic EW containing bovine serum (5, 10, 15 and 20 ml l(-1)) for 15 s, 30 s, 1 min, 3 min and 5 min at room temperature (22 +/- 2 degrees C). In the absence of bovine serum, acidic EW treatment reduced levels of cells below the detection limit (0.7 log) in 5 min. In the presence of bovine serum, bactericidal activity of acidic EW decreased with increasing serum concentration. CONCLUSIONS: Organic matter reduces the effectiveness of acidic EW for reducing pathogens on the surfaces of lettuce and spinach. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: From a practical standpoint, organic matter reduces the efficacy of acidic EW. This study was conducted to confirm the effect of organic matter on the properties of acidic EW in the inactivation of foodborne pathogens on the surface of vegetables.

USCOM (Ultrasonic Cardiac Output Monitors) lacks agreement with thermodilution cardiac output and transoesophageal echocardiography valve measurements.

The USCOM (Ultrasonic Cardiac Output Monitors) device is a non-invasive cardiac output monitor, which utilises transaortic or transpulmonary Doppler flow tracing and valve area estimated using patient height to determine cardiac output. We evaluated USCOM against thermodilution cardiac outputs and transoesophageal echocardiography valve area measurements in 22 ASA PS4 cardiac surgical patients. Data collection commenced following pulmonary artery catheter insertion, with cardiac output measurements repeated after sternotomy closure. Failure to obtain transaortic Doppler readings using USCOM occurred in 5% of planned measurements. USCOM transaortic analysis was not planned for 11 patients with known aortic disease. Bias at the aortic window (n = 20) was -0.79 l/min with limits of agreement from -3.66 to 2.08 l/min. At the pulmonary window, failure to obtain Doppler readings occurred in 24% of planned measurements. Bias at the pulmonary window (n = 36) was -0.17 l/min with limits of agreement from -3.30 to 2.97 l/min. The USCOM estimates of valve area based on height showed poor correlation with the echocardiographic measurements of aortic and pulmonary valves (r = 0.57 and r = 0.17, respectively). It was concluded that USCOM showed poor agreement with thermodilution. The estimated valve area was identified as one source of error.

Molecular targeting of retinoic acid metabolism in neuroblastoma: the role of the CYP26 inhibitor R116010 in vitro and in vivo.

Isomerisation to all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) is widely accepted as the key mechanism underlying the favourable clinical properties of 13-cis-retinoic acid (13cisRA). As intracellular metabolism of ATRA by CYP26 may result in clinical resistance to 13cisRA, an increase in efficacy may be achieved through modulation of this metabolic pathway. We have evaluated the effect of the CYP26 inhibitor R116010 on retinoid metabolism in neuroblastoma cell lines and a xenograft model. In neuroblastoma cells, which showed a high level of CYP26 induction in response to ATRA, R116010 selectively inhibited ATRA metabolism. In addition, siRNA-mediated knockdown of CYP26 selectively increased ATRA levels and the expression of retinoid-responsive marker genes was potentiated by R116010. Treatment of mice bearing SH-SY5Y xenografts with 13cisRA (100 mg kg(-1)) revealed substantial levels (16%) of intratumoral ATRA after 6 h, despite plasma ATRA levels representing only 1% total retinoids under these conditions. Co-administration of R116010 with 13cisRA in this mouse model resulted in significant increases in plasma ATRA and 13cisRA concentrations. Furthermore, R116010 induced significant decreases in levels of 4-oxo metabolites in hepatic tissue after co-administration with either ATRA or 13cisRA. These data suggest considerable potential for CYP26 inhibitors in the future treatment of neuroblastoma with 13cisRA.

Corticosterone responses of grey-faced petrels (Pterodroma macroptera gouldi) are higher during incubation than during other breeding stages.

We report the results of the first field study examining seasonal changes in corticosterone responses of typically long-lived birds of the order Procellariiformes. In particular, we examined whether grey-faced petrels Pterodroma macroptera gouldi showed changes in circulating baseline corticosterone concentrations and corticosterone responses to a standardized handling protocol across the breeding season. Such changes have been associated with changes in body condition and variations in energy demands on adult birds through the breeding season. During early incubation, males were in significantly better condition than females that had just completed laying, whereas during late incubation, males were in significantly poorer condition than females. In spite of these differences, there was no significant difference in baseline corticosterone concentrations between sexes or among birds at different reproductive stages. However, we detected significant differences in corticosterone responses associated with a standardized handling protocol at different stages through the breeding season. Responses were significantly greater during incubation compared with the prelay period and late chick rearing. Body condition was weakly and negatively correlated with maximum and total integrated corticosterone level, indicating that some of the individual variability in stress corticosterone responses could be explained by variation in body condition. However, the largest stress response occurred during late incubation and was independent of sex, although males were in relatively poor condition and females in relatively good condition. This period coincided with the breeding stage in which energy constraints on individual adults were higher than at other periods of the reproductive cycle and birds may be physiologically primed for extended fasts.

Absence of interferon-gamma-inducible gene IGTP does not significantly alter the development of chagasic cardiomyopathy in mice infected with Trypanosoma cruzi (Brazil strain).

Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) contributes to host resistance during acute infection with Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease. Inducibly expressed guanosine triphosphatase (IGTP), a 48-kDa guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase), is a member of a family of GTPase proteins inducibly expressed by IFN-gamma. The expression pattern of IGTP suggests that it may mediate IFN-gamma-induced responses in a variety of cell types. IGTP has been demonstrated to be important for control of Toxoplasma gondii infection but not for resistance against Listeria monocytogenes. We evaluated the role of IGTP in development of chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy in IGTP null mice and C57X129sv (wild type [WT]) mice infected with the Brazil strain for 6 mo. There was no significant difference in parasitemia or cardiac histopathology between null and WT mice. Right ventricular remodeling was observed in infected IGTP null mice, suggesting that IGTP does not significantly alter the course of T. cruzi infection.

Posthaemorrhagic ventricular dilatation in the premature infant: natural history and predictors of outcome.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the natural history and predictors of outcome of posthaemorrhagic ventriculomegaly in the very low birthweight (VLBW) infant. METHODS: All VLBW infants admitted between September 1994 and September 1997 to the neonatal intensive care units of Brigham and Women's Hospital (Boston), Children's Hospital (Boston), and Christchurch Women's Hospital (New Zealand) with germinal matrix intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH) were identified. All charts and ultrasound scans were reviewed to define the natural history and perinatal and/or postnatal factors of value in prediction of the course of posthaemorrhagic ventriculomegaly. Progressive ventricular dilatation (PVD) was defined from the results of serial cranial ultrasound scans. RESULTS: A total of 248 VLBW infants had evidence of IVH (22% of all VLBW infants, mean (SD) gestational age 26.8 (2.6) weeks). A quarter of the infants exhibited PVD. Spontaneous arrest of PVD occurred without treatment in 38% of infants with PVD. Of the remaining 62% with persistent PVD, 48% received non-surgical treatment only (pharmacological and/or drainage of cerebrospinal fluid by serial lumbar punctures), 34% received surgical treatment with insertion of a ventriculoperitoneal reservoir and/or shunt, and 18% died. The development of PVD after IVH and adverse short term outcome, such as the requirement for surgery, were predicted most strongly by the severity of IVH. CONCLUSIONS: These data reflect the natural history of PVD in the 1990s and show that, despite a slight reduction in its overall incidence, there appears to be a more aggressive course, with appreciable mortality and morbidity in the extremely premature infant. The major predictor of adverse short term outcome, defined as death or need for surgical intervention, was the severity of IVH. These findings may be valuable for the management of very small premature infants.

Impact of clinical volume on scholarly activity in an academic children's hospital: trends, implications, and possible solutions.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effect of changes in clinical volume on scholarly activities in an academic pediatric radiology department. METHODS: For each academic year from 1995 to 2000 we queried the departmental radiology information system for clinical examination volume and work complexity expressed in work relative value units (RVU) per full-time equivalent (FTE) radiologist. Publication activity by faculty and fellows was assessed by an electronic (Medline) search for all peer-reviewed articles. Departmental presentations at annual meetings of four major radiological societies were determined from published proceedings. The relationship between scholarly activity and clinical volumes was assessed by linear regression. RESULTS: Over the 6-year study period, the number of clinical exams per FTE radiologist increased by 17 % (P < 0.05) and the number of RVUs per FTE radiologist increased by 46 % (P < 0.02). During the same period, the number of peer-reviewed publications per FTE radiologist decreased by 69 % (P < 0.01 by linear regression), while number of presentations at national meetings dropped by 16 % (P = NS). Number of clinical examinations and RVU per FTE were both strong predictors of decreasing publication rate (r = -1, P < 0.04), but not of academic presentations at national meetings. There was no correlation between clinical and academic productivity for individual faculty in the final year of the study (r < 0.01, P = NS). CONCLUSIONS: Increases in clinical workload have negatively affected the academic productivity of pediatric radiologists at a large children's hospital.

Gamma interferon-induced inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii in astrocytes is mediated by IGTP.

Toxoplasma gondii is an important pathogen in the central nervous system, causing a severe and often fatal encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) is the main cytokine preventing reactivation of Toxoplasma encephalitis in the brain. Microglia are important IFN-gamma-activated effector cells controlling the growth of T. gondii in the brain via a nitric oxide (NO)-mediated mechanism. IFN-gamma can also activate astrocytes to inhibit the growth of T. gondii. Previous studies found that the mechanism in murine astrocytes is independent of NO and all other known anti-Toxoplasma mechanisms. In this study we investigated the role of IGTP, a recently identified IFN-gamma-regulated gene, in IFN-gamma inhibition of T. gondii in murine astrocytes. Primary astrocytes were cultivated from IGTP-deficient mice, treated with IFN-gamma, and then tested for anti-Toxoplasma activity. In wild-type astrocytes T. gondii growth was significantly inhibited by IFN-gamma, whereas in astrocytes from IGTP-deficient mice IFN-gamma did not cause a significant inhibition of growth. Immunoblot analysis confirmed that IFN-gamma induced significant levels of IGTP in wild-type murine astrocytes within 24 h. These results indicate that IGTP plays a central role in the IFN-gamma-induced inhibition of T. gondii in murine astrocytes.

Sonographic assessment of posthemorrhagic ventricular dilatation.

Sonography plays a key role in the initial evaluation and monitoring of ventricular dilatation in the newborn. The use of supplemental imaging approaches by the mastoid fontanelle and foramen magnum can help identify the cause and location of obstruction. Duplex Doppler of intracranial vessels during anterior fontanelle compression is a useful indicator of altered cranial compliance in these infants. Additional views of the thoracolumbar spine can help identify which infants will likely benefit from lumbar puncture for therapy of progressive ventricular dilatation.

Comparison of breast magnetic resonance imaging, mammography, and ultrasound for surveillance of women at high risk for hereditary breast cancer.

PURPOSE: Recommended surveillance for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers includes regular mammography and clinical breast examination, although the effectiveness of these screening techniques in mutation carriers has not been established. The purpose of the present study was to compare breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with ultrasound, mammography, and physical examination in women at high risk for hereditary breast cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 196 women, aged 26 to 59 years, with proven BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations or strong family histories of breast or ovarian cancer underwent mammography, ultrasound, MRI, and clinical breast examination on a single day. A biopsy was performed when any of the four investigations was judged to be suspicious for malignancy. RESULTS: Six invasive breast cancers and one noninvasive breast cancer were detected among the 196 high-risk women. Five of the invasive cancers occurred in mutation carriers, and the sixth occurred in a woman with a previous history of breast cancer. The prevalence of invasive or noninvasive breast cancer in the 96 mutation carriers was 6.2%. All six invasive cancers were detected by MRI, all were 1.0 cm or less in diameter, and all were node-negative. In contrast, only three invasive cancers were detected by ultrasound, two by mammography, and two by physical examination. The addition of MRI to the more commonly available triad of mammography, ultrasound, and breast examination identified two additional invasive breast cancers that would otherwise have been missed. CONCLUSION: Breast MRI may be superior to mammography and ultrasound for the screening of women at high risk for hereditary breast cancer.

The determination of complete human mitochondrial DNA sequences in single cells: implications for the study of somatic mitochondrial DNA point mutations.

Studies of single cells have previously shown intracellular clonal expansion of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations to levels that can cause a focal cytochrome c oxidase (COX) defect. Whilst techniques are available to study mtDNA rearrangements at the level of the single cell, recent interest has focused on the possible role of somatic mtDNA point mutations in ageing, neurodegenerative disease and cancer. We have therefore developed a method that permits the reliable determination of the entire mtDNA sequence from single cells without amplifying contaminating, nuclear-embedded pseudogenes. Sequencing and PCR-RFLP analyses of individual COX-negative muscle fibres from a patient with a previously described heteroplasmic COX II (T7587C) mutation indicate that mutant loads as low as 30% can be reliably detected by sequencing. This technique will be particularly useful in identifying the mtDNA mutational spectra in age-related COX-negative cells and will increase our understanding of the pathogenetic mechanisms by which they occur.

Sonography of brain tumors in infants and young children.

The sonographic features of five brain tumors are presented to emphasize the variability of imaging findings and the role that sonography may play in the initial diagnosis, determination of tumor vascularity, and biopsy guidance.

Inactivation of LRG-47 and IRG-47 reveals a family of interferon gamma-inducible genes with essential, pathogen-specific roles in resistance to infection.

The cytokine interferon (IFN)-gamma regulates immune clearance of parasitic, bacterial, and viral infections; however, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Recently, a family of IFN-gamma-induced genes has been identified that encode 48-kD GTP-binding proteins that localize to the endoplasmic reticulum of cells. The prototype of this family, IGTP, has been shown to be required for host defense against acute infections with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, but not for normal clearance of the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes and murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV). To determine whether other members of the gene family also play important roles in immune defense, we generated mice that lacked expression of the genes LRG-47 and IRG-47, and examined their responses to representative pathogens. After infection with T. gondii, LRG-47-deficient mice succumbed uniformly and rapidly during the acute phase of the infection; in contrast, IRG-47-deficient mice displayed only partially decreased resistance that was not manifested until the chronic phase. After infection with L. monocytogenes, LRG-47-deficient mice exhibited a profound loss of resistance, whereas IRG-47-deficient mice exhibited completely normal resistance. In addition, both strains displayed normal clearance of MCMV. Thus, LRG-47 and IRG-47 have vital, but distinct roles in immune defense against protozoan and bacterial infections.