Complete nutrient recovery from source-separated urine by nitrification and distillation.

In this study we present a method to recover all nutrients from source-separated urine in a dry solid by combining biological nitrification with distillation. In a first process step, a membrane-aerated biofilm reactor was operated stably for more than 12 months, producing a nutrient solution with a pH between 6.2 and 7.0 (depending on the pH set-point), and an ammonium to nitrate ratio between 0.87 and 1.15 gN gN(-1). The maximum nitrification rate was 1.8 ± 0.3 gN m(-2) d(-1). Process stability was achieved by controlling the pH via the influent. In the second process step, real nitrified urine and synthetic solutions were concentrated in lab-scale distillation reactors. All nutrients were recovered in a dry powder except for some ammonia (less than 3% of total nitrogen). We estimate that the primary energy demand for a simple nitrification/distillation process is four to five times higher than removing nitrogen and phosphorus in a conventional wastewater treatment plant and producing the equivalent amount of phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers. However, the primary energy demand can be reduced to values very close to conventional treatment, if 80% of the water is removed with reverse osmosis and distillation is operated with vapor compression. The ammonium nitrate content of the solid residue is below the limit at which stringent EU safety regulations for fertilizers come into effect; nevertheless, we propose some additional process steps that will increase the thermal stability of the solid product.

Low-cost struvite production using source-separated urine in Nepal.

This research investigated the possibility of transferring phosphorus from human urine into a concentrated form that can be used as fertilizer in agriculture. The community of Siddhipur in Nepal was chosen as a research site, because there is a strong presence and acceptance of the urine-diverting dry toilets needed to collect urine separately at the source. Furthermore, because the mainly agricultural country is landlocked and depends on expensive, imported fertilizers, the need for nutrient security is high. We found that struvite (MgNH(4)PO(4)·6H(2)O) precipitation from urine is an efficient and simple approach to produce a granulated phosphorus fertilizer. Bittern, a waste stream from salt production, is a practical magnesium source for struvite production, but it has to be imported from India. Calculations show that magnesium oxide produced from locally available magnesite would be a cheaper magnesium source. A reactor with an external filtration system was capable of removing over 90% of phosphorus with a low magnesium dosage (1.1 mol Mg mol P), with coarse nylon filters (pore width up to 160±50 µm) and with only one hour total treatment time. A second reactor setup based on sedimentation only achieved 50% phosphate removal, even when flocculants were added. Given the current fertilizer prices, high volumes of urine must be processed, if struvite recovery should be financially sustainable. Therefore, it is important to optimize the process. Our calculations showed that collecting the struvite and calcium phosphate precipitated spontaneously due to urea hydrolysis could increase the overall phosphate recovery by at least 40%. The magnesium dosage can be optimized by estimating the phosphate concentration by measuring electrical conductivity. An important source of additional revenue could be the effluent of the struvite reactor. Further research should be aimed at finding methods and technologies to recover the nutrients from the effluent.

Combining biocatalyzed electrolysis with anaerobic digestion.

Biocatalyzed electrolysis is a microbial fuel cell based technology for the generation of hydrogen gas and other reduced products out of electron donors. Examples of electron donors are acetate and wastewater. An external power supply can support the process and therefore circumvent thermodynamical constraints that normally render the generation of compounds such as hydrogen unlikely. We have investigated the possibility of biocatalyzed electrolysis for the generation of methane. The cathodically produced hydrogen could be converted into methane at a ratio of 0.41 mole methane mole(-1) acetate, at temperatures of 22+/-2 degrees C. The anodic oxidation of acetate was not hampered by ammonium concentrations up to 5 g N L(-1). An overview is given of potential applications for biocatalyzed electrolysis.

Nutrient cycles and resource management: implications for the choice of wastewater treatment technology.

We look at the most important issues of the global nitrogen and phosphorus cycle and conclude that the nutrients from human metabolism are of no importance for the global nitrogen cycle and of minor importance for the global phosphorus cycle. However, for water pollution control, N and P from the human metabolism are of extreme importance. Nitrogen is mainly an issue for coastal waters, whereas P is an issue for freshwater and coastal areas alike. It is by now generally recognised that coastal ecosystems are exceedingly important for human well-being and at the same time highly endangered. The recycling issue is of high importance in areas where nutrient application is low due to economic constraints. NoMix technology (urine source separation) holds a large promise to become an efficient mainstream technology. The largest short-term potential is found in densely populated areas in coastal areas without existing infrastructure and in areas with nutrient deficiency, especially in urban areas with a large nutrient potential. We believe, however, that these technologies will, with time, also become competitive in Europe.

Fate of major compounds in source-separated urine.

Urine separation is a promising alternative to present-day waste water management. It can help to manage our nutrient flows in a sustainable way. Currently, techniques are being developed to recycle and treat source-separated urine. These techniques, however, must consider the spontaneous processes that change the separated urine. The initial cause of changes is the contamination with microorganisms, which can hardly be avoided in urine-collecting systems. The most important transformation processes are microbial urea hydrolysis, mineral precipitation and ammonia volatilisation. Additionally, a variety of microorganisms may grow in source-separated urine, because the content of biodegradable organic compounds is very high. These microorganisms may also include pathogens. In this paper we give an overview of the effects that the spontaneous transformation processes may have. We focus on nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, potassium, sulphur, organic substances, pathogens and the buffering capacity. The discussion is based on own experiences and literature reviews. This overview will help to develop appropriate technologies for urine recycling.

Nitrification and autotrophic denitrification of source-separated urine.

In laboratory experiments, source-separated urine was stabilised with nitrification and denitrified via nitritation and anaerobic ammonium oxidation. The highest total ammonia concentration in the influent was 7,300 gN/m3, the maximum pH 9.2. In a moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) with Kaldnes biofilm carriers, we stabilised urine as a 1:1 ammonium nitrate solution. The maximum nitrification rate was 380 gN/m3/d corresponding to 1.7 gN/m2(biofilm)/d. Nitrite ammonium solutions were produced in a continuous flow stirred tank reactor (CSTR) with 4.8 days sludge retention time (SRT) at 30 degrees C and in a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) with more than 30 days SRT. Nitrate build-up was negligible in both reactors. Nitritation rates were 780 gN/m3/d in the CSTR and 280 gN/m3/d in the SBR, respectively. However, shortening the cycles would increase nitritation in the SBR. High concentrations of nitrous acid, salts, and presumably hydroxylamine suppressed nitrite oxidation in the nitritation reactors. In all three nitrification reactors, maximally 50% of the influent total ammonia was oxidised without pH control. None of the common inhibition or limitation approaches could explain why ammonia oxidation always stopped at pH values around 6. In a batch experiment, we showed that source-separated urine can be denitrified autotrophically by anammox bacteria.