Mesenchymal stem cells from Shwachman-Diamond syndrome patients display normal functions and do not contribute to hematological defects.

Shwachman-Diamond syndrome (SDS) is a rare inherited disorder characterized by bone marrow (BM) dysfunction and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. SDS patients have an increased risk for myelodisplastic syndrome and acute myeloid leukemia. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are the key component of the hematopoietic microenvironment and are relevant in inducing genetic mutations leading to leukemia. However, their role in SDS is still unexplored. We demonstrated that morphology, growth kinetics and expression of surface markers of MSCs from SDS patients (SDS-MSCs) were similar to normal MSCs. Moreover, SDS-MSCs were able to differentiate into mesengenic lineages and to inhibit the proliferation of mitogen-activated lymphocytes. We demonstrated in an in vitro coculture system that SDS-MSCs, significantly inhibited neutrophil apoptosis probably through interleukin-6 production. In a long-term coculture with CD34(+)-sorted cells, SDS-MSCs were able to sustain CD34(+) cells survival and to preserve their stemness. Finally, SDS-MSCs had normal karyotype and did not show any chromosomal abnormality observed in the hematological components of the BM of SDS patients. Despite their pivotal role in the hematopoietic stem cell niche, our data suggest that MSC themselves do not seem to be responsible for the hematological defects typical of SDS patients.

Somatic SF3B1 mutation in myelodysplasia with ring sideroblasts.

BACKGROUND: Myelodysplastic syndromes are a diverse and common group of chronic hematologic cancers. The identification of new genetic lesions could facilitate new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. METHODS: We used massively parallel sequencing technology to identify somatically acquired point mutations across all protein-coding exons in the genome in 9 patients with low-grade myelodysplasia. Targeted resequencing of the gene encoding RNA splicing factor 3B, subunit 1 (SF3B1), was also performed in a cohort of 2087 patients with myeloid or other cancers. RESULTS: We identified 64 point mutations in the 9 patients. Recurrent somatically acquired mutations were identified in SF3B1. Follow-up revealed SF3B1 mutations in 72 of 354 patients (20%) with myelodysplastic syndromes, with particularly high frequency among patients whose disease was characterized by ring sideroblasts (53 of 82 [65%]). The gene was also mutated in 1 to 5% of patients with a variety of other tumor types. The observed mutations were less deleterious than was expected on the basis of chance, suggesting that the mutated protein retains structural integrity with altered function. SF3B1 mutations were associated with down-regulation of key gene networks, including core mitochondrial pathways. Clinically, patients with SF3B1 mutations had fewer cytopenias and longer event-free survival than patients without SF3B1 mutations. CONCLUSIONS: Mutations in SF3B1 implicate abnormalities of messenger RNA splicing in the pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndromes. (Funded by the Wellcome Trust and others.).

Null mutation of the Lmo4 gene or a combined null mutation of the Lmo1/Lmo3 genes causes perinatal lethality, and Lmo4 controls neural tube development in mice.

The LIM-only family of proteins comprises four members; two of these (LMO1 and LMO2) are involved in human T-cell leukemia via chromosomal translocations, and LMO2 is a master regulator of hematopoiesis. We have carried out gene targeting of the other members of the LIM-only family, viz., genes Lmo1, Lmo3 and Lmo4, to investigate their role in mouse development. None of these genes has an obligatory role in lymphopoiesis. In addition, while null mutations of Lmo1 or Lmo3 have no discernible phenotype, null mutation of Lmo4 alone causes perinatal lethality due to a severe neural tube defect which occurs in the form of anencephaly or exencephaly. Since the Lmo1 and Lmo3 gene sequences are highly related and have partly overlapping expression domains, we assessed the effect of compound Lmo1/Lmo3 null mutations. Although no anatomical defects were apparent in compound null pups, these animals also die within 24 h of birth, suggesting that a compensation between the related Lmo1 and 3 proteins can occur during embryogenesis to negate the individual loss of these genes. Our results complete the gene targeting of the LIM-only family in mice and suggest that all four members of this family are important in regulators of distinct developmental pathways.

Antipsychotic drug treatment alters expression of mRNAs encoding lipid metabolism-related proteins.

Using an automated PCR-based genomics approach, TOtal Gene expression Analysis (TOGA), we have examined gene expression profiles of mouse striatum and frontal cortex in response to clozapine and haloperidol drug treatment. Of 17 315 mRNAs observed, TOGA identified several groups of related molecules that were regulated by drug treatment. The expression of some genes encoding proteins involved in neurotransmission, signal transduction, oxidative stress, cell adhesion, apoptosis and proteolysis were altered in the brains of both clozapine- and haloperidol-treated mice as recognized by TOGA. Most notable was the differential expression of those genes whose products are associated with lipid metabolism. These include apolipoprotein D (apoD), the mouse homolog of oxysterol-binding protein-like protein 8 (OSBPL8), a diacylglycerol receptor (n-chimerin), and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) acyltransferase. Real-time PCR analysis confirmed increases in the RNA expression of apoD (1.6-2.2-fold) and OSBPL8 (1.7-2.6-fold), and decreases in the RNA expression of n-chimerin (1.5-2.2-fold) and LPA acyltransferase (1.5-fold) in response to haloperidol and/or clozapine treatment. Additional molecules related to calcium homeostasis and signal transduction, as well as four sequences of previously unidentified mRNAs, were also confirmed by real-time PCR to be regulated by drug treatment. While antipsychotic drugs may affect several metabolic pathways, lipid metabolism/signaling pathways may be of particular importance in the mechanisms of antipsychotic drug action and in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders.

Preferential binding of human full-length XPA and the minimal DNA binding domain (XPA-MF122) with the mitomycin C-DNA interstrand cross-link.

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is an important cellular mechanism that removes radiation-induced and chemically induced damage from DNA. The XPA protein is involved in the damage recognition step of NER and appears to function by binding damaged DNA and recruiting other proteins to the site. It may also play a role in subsequent steps of NER through interaction with other repair proteins. Interstrand cross-links are of particular interest, since these lesions involve both strands of duplex DNA and present special challenges to the repair machinery. Using 14 and 25 bp duplex oligonucleotides containing a defined, well-characterized single mitomycin C (MMC)-DNA interstrand cross-link, we have shown through gel shift analysis that both XPA and a minimal DNA binding domain of XPA (XPA-MF122) preferentially bind to MMC-cross-linked DNA with a greater specificity and a higher affinity (>2-fold) than to the same undamaged DNA sequence. This preferential binding to MMC-cross-linked DNA occurs in the absence of other proteins from the NER complex. Differences in binding affinity and specificity were observed among the different protein-DNA combinations that were both protein and DNA specific. Defining XPA-MMC-DNA interactions may aid in elucidating the mechanism by which DNA cross-links and other forms of DNA damage are recognized and repaired by the NER machinery in eukaryotic cells.

Detection of mitomycin C-DNA adducts in human breast cancer cells grown in culture, as xenografted tumors in nude mice, and in biopsies of human breast cancer patient tumors as determined by (32)P-postlabeling.

Mitomycin C (MMC) is a DNA cross-linking agent that has been used in cancer chemotherapy for >20 years. However, little is known either qualitatively or quantitatively about the relationship between formation and repair of specific MMC-DNA adducts and specific biological outcomes. The goal of this study was to examine formation and removal of specific MMC-DNA adducts in breast cancer cells using a (32)P-postlabeling assay in relation to cytotoxicity and other biological end points. MMC-DNA adducts were measured in cultured human metastatic MDA-MB-435 cells, in the same cells xenografted as a mammary tumor in nude mice, and in metastatic tumor biopsies obtained from human breast cancer patients undergoing MMC-based therapy. MMC adducts corresponding to the CpG interstrand cross-link, the MMC-G bifunctional monoadduct, and two isomers of the MMC-G monofunctional monoadduct were detected in most samples. Despite similarities in the overall patterns of adduct formation, there were substantial differences between the cultured cells and the in vivo tumors in their adduct distribution profile, kinetics of adduct formation and removal, and relationship of specific adduct levels to cytotoxicity, suggesting that the in vivo microenvironment (e.g., degree of oxygenation, pH, activity of oxidoreductases, and other factors) of breast cancer cells may significantly modulate these parameters.

The leukemia-associated AML1 (Runx1)--CBF beta complex functions as a DNA-induced molecular clamp.

We have determined the structure, at 2.6 A resolution, of the AML1 (Runx1) Runt domain--CBF beta--DNA ternary complex, the most common target for mutations in human leukemia. The structure reveals that the Runt domain DNA binding mechanism is unique within the p53 family of transcription factors. The extended C-terminal 'tail' and 'wing' elements adopt a specific DNA-bound conformation that clamps the phosphate backbone between the major and minor grooves of the distorted B-form DNA recognition site. Furthermore, the extended 'tail' mediates most of the NF-kappa B/Rel-like base-specific contacts in the major groove. The structure clearly explains the molecular basis for the loss of DNA binding function of the Runt domain--CBF beta complex as a consequence of the human disease-associated mutations in leukemogenesis and cleidocranial dysplasia.

Energetic and functional contribution of residues in the core binding factor beta (CBFbeta ) subunit to heterodimerization with CBFalpha.

Core-binding factors (CBFs) are a small family of heterodimeric transcription factors that play critical roles in several developmental pathways, including hematopoiesis and bone development. Mutations in CBF genes are found in leukemias and bone disorders. CBFs consist of a DNA-binding CBFalpha subunit (Runx1, Runx2, or Runx3) and a non-DNA-binding CBFbeta subunit. CBFalpha binds DNA in a sequence-specific manner, whereas CBFbeta enhances DNA binding by CBFalpha. Recent structural analyses of the DNA-binding Runt domain of CBFalpha and the CBFbeta subunit identified the heterodimerization surfaces on each subunit. Here we identify amino acids in CBFbeta that mediate binding to CBFalpha. We determine the energy contributed by each of these amino acids to heterodimerization and the importance of these residues for in vivo function. These data refine the structural analyses and further support the hypothesis that CBFbeta enhances DNA binding by inducing a conformational change in the Runt domain.

Structural basis for the heterodimeric interaction between the acute leukaemia-associated transcription factors AML1 and CBFbeta.

Mutations in the genes encoding the interacting proteins AML1 and CBFbeta are the most common genetic abnormalities in acute leukaemia, and congenital mutations in the related AML3 gene are associated with disorders of osteogenesis. Furthermore, the interaction of AML1 with CBFbeta is essential for haematopoiesis. We report the 2.6 A resolution crystal structure of the complex between the AML1 Runt domain and CBFbeta, which represents a paradigm for the mode of interaction of this highly conserved family of transcription factors. The structure demonstrates that point mutations associated with cleidocranial dysplasia map to the conserved heterodimer interface, suggesting a role for CBFbeta in osteogenesis, and reveals a potential protein interaction platform composed of conserved negatively charged residues on the surface of CBFbeta.

Tumorigenesis in mice with a fusion of the leukaemia oncogene Mll and the bacterial lacZ gene.

Many different chromosomal translocations occur in man at chromosome 11q23 in acute leukaemias. Molecular analyses revealed that the MLL gene (also called ALL-1, HRX or HTRX) is broken by the translocations, causing fusion with genes from other chromosomes. The diversity of MLL fusion partners poses a dilemma about the function of the fusion proteins in tumour development. The consequence of MLL truncation and fusion has been analysed by joining exon 8 of Mll with the bacterial lacZ gene using homologous recombination in mouse embryonic stem cells. We show that this fusion is sufficient to cause embryonic stem cell-derived acute leukaemias in chimeric mice, and these tumours occur with long latency compared with those found in MLL-Af9 chimeric mice. These findings indicate that an MLL fusion protein can contribute to tumorigenesis, even if the fusion partner has no known pathogenic role. Thus, truncation and fusion of MLL can be sufficient for tumorigenesis, regardless of the fusion partner.

The mll-AF9 gene fusion in mice controls myeloproliferation and specifies acute myeloid leukaemogenesis.

The MLL gene from human chromosome 11q23 is involved in >30 different chromosomal translocations resulting in a plethora of different MLL fusion proteins. Each of these tends to associate with a specific leukaemia type, for example, MLL-AF9 is found mainly in acute myeloid leukaemia. We have studied the role of the Mll-AF9 gene fusion made in mouse embryonic stem cells by an homologous recombination knock-in. Acute leukaemias developed in heterozygous mice carrying this fusion as well as in chimeric mice. As with human chromosomal translocation t(9;11), the majority of cases were acute myeloid leukaemias (AMLs) involving immature myeloblasts, but a minority were acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. The AMLs were preceded by effects on haematopoietic differentiation involving a myeloproliferation resulting in accumulation of Mac-1/Gr-1 double-positive mature myeloid cells in bone marrow as early as 6 days after birth. Therefore, non-malignant expansion of myeloid precursors is the first stage of Mll-AF9-mediated leukaemia followed by accumulation of malignant cells in bone marrow and other tissues. Thus, the late onset of overt tumours suggests that secondary tumorigenic mutations are necessary for malignancy associated with MLL-AF9 gene fusion and that myeloproliferation provides the pool of cells in which such events can occur.

Effects of mitomycin C and carboplatin pretreatment on multidrug resistance-associated P-glycoprotein expression and on subsequent suppression of tumor growth by doxorubicin and paclitaxel in human metastatic breast cancer xenografted nude mice.

Overexpression of P-glycoprotein (Pgp), multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP), and several other proteins has been associated with development of multidrug resistance by cancer cells, which represents a significant obstacle to successful treatment by chemotherapy. We had previously demonstrated that a single noncytotoxic dose of mitomycin C (MMC), carboplatin, or one of several other DNA cross-linking agents suppressed mRNA expression of the mdr1 gene coding for Pgp, leading to a subsequent suppression of Pgp protein levels and a concomitant decrease in drug efflux. Pretreatment with MMC led to a 5- to 10-fold decrease in the ED50 for cell killing by a subsequent agent such as the Pgp substrate, doxorubicin, but did not affect killing by the non-Pgp substrate, cisplatin. In this study, we report that MMC and carboplatin each significantly suppressed Pgp protein levels in human MDA-MB-435 cells xenografted as solid tumors into the lateral mammary fat pads of female nude mice, with a similar time course as had previously been observed in cell culture. Pretreatment of mice with MMC or carboplatin 48-72 h prior to receiving either doxorubicin or paclitaxel caused a significantly greater reduction in tumor growth rate compared to either agent alone or the combination given simultaneously. These data suggest that a combination chemotherapy regimen consisting of a DNA cross-linking agent given to modulate the MDR phenotype, followed by a second cytotoxic agent, may be an effective treatment for human patients with de novo or late stage acquired multidrug-resistant malignancies.

The T cell leukemia LIM protein Lmo2 is necessary for adult mouse hematopoiesis.

The LIM-finger protein Lmo2, which is activated in T cell leukemias by chromosomal translocations, is required for yolk sac erythropoiesis. Because Lmo2 null mutant mice die at embryonic day 9-10, it prevents an assessment of a role in other stages of hematopoiesis. We have now studied the hematopoietic contribution of homozygous mutant Lmo2 -/- mouse embryonic stem cells and found that Lmo2 -/- cells do not contribute to any hematopoietic lineage in adult chimeric mice, but reintroduction of an Lmo2-expression vector rescues the ability of Lmo2 null embryonic stem cells to contribute to all lineages tested. This disruption of hematopoiesis probably occurs because interaction of Lmo2 protein with factors such as Tal1/Scl is precluded. Thus, Lmo2 is necessary for early stages of hematopoiesis, and the Lmo2 master gene encodes a protein that has a central and crucial role in the hematopoietic development.

Binding of nuclear proteins associated with mammalian DNA repair to the mitomycin C-DNA interstrand crosslink.

Mitomycin C (MMC) is a DNA crosslinking agent that is used in cancer chemotherapy. Unlike the DNA crosslinks formed by cisplatin or psoralen, which significantly distort the DNA helix, the MMC crosslink does not significantly disturb the B-DNA helical structure. Nonetheless, MMC interstrand crosslinks and total MMC adducts are rapidly removed in vivo. We investigated whether mammalian nuclear proteins can recognize and bind to a model 23 bp DNA duplex containing a single MMC lesion. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays identified two complexes in nuclear extracts from rodent cell lines and three complexes in human cell lines, containing proteins that appeared to specifically recognize the MMC interstrand crosslink. Nuclear extracts from normal and excision repair-defective mutant Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines, from human Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP) complementation group A and E cell lines, and a Fanconi's Anemia cell line were also examined. The UV-20 CHO line, defective in ERCC-1, was missing one of the two rodent complexes. Two of the three human complexes were also absent in the XPA human cell line and the intensity of the third complex was significantly diminished. Based on these results, a model for MMC crosslink recognition is proposed in which ERCC-1 and XPA each participate in formation of one or more multimeric complexes on the crosslinked DNA and XPA also aids in the formation, but is not a component of a higher molecularweight multimeric complex that may contain ERCC-1.

Detection of mitomycin C-DNA adducts in vivo by 32P-postlabeling: time course for formation and removal of adducts and biochemical modulation.

Mitomycin C (MMC) is a DNA cross-linking agent that has been used in cancer chemotherapy for over 20 years, yet little is known either qualitatively or quantitatively about MMC-induced DNA adduct formation and repair in vivo. As an initial means of investigating this, we used a recently developed 32P-postlabeling assay to examine the formation and loss of MMC-DNA adducts in the tissues of a simple in vivo model test system, the chick embryo, following treatment with a chemotherapeutic dose of MMC. As early as 15 min after MMC treatment, four adducts could be detected in the liver which were tentatively identified as the (CpG) N2G-MMC-N2G interstrand cross-link, the bifunctionally activated MMC-N2G monoadduct, and two isomers (alpha and beta) of the monofunctionally activated MMC-N2G monoadduct. The (GpG) N2G-MMC-N2G intrastrand cross-link appears to be a poor substrate for nuclease P1 and/or T4 kinase and was not evaluable by this assay. Levels of all four detectable adducts increased substantially within the first 2 h after MMC treatment, reached maximal levels by 6 h, and decreased progressively thereafter through 24 h, although low levels of certain adducts persisted beyond 24 h. Lung and kidney had comparable levels of total MMC adducts, which were approximately 60% those of the liver, and there were no significant differences in the proportion of specific adducts among the three tissues. The interstrand cross-link represented approximately 13-14% of the total MMC adducts, which is approximately 5-fold greater than the proportion of CpG sites in the genome. In addition, the interstrand cross-link was selectively decreased after 16 h relative to the three monoadducts, suggesting preferential repair. The effect of modulating different components of the Phase I and Phase II drug metabolism on MMC adduct formation, using either glutethimide, 3,4,3',4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl, dexamethasone, buthionine sulfoximine, ethacrynic acid, or N-acetylcysteine pretreatments, was examined to characterize the possible pathways of MMC metabolism and adduct formation in vivo. Surprisingly, none of these pretreatments had a significant effect on individual or total adducts with the exception of dexamethasone, which caused an almost 2-fold proportional increase in all four adducts in the liver.

Suppression of P-glycoprotein expression and multidrug resistance by DNA cross-linking agents.

Overexpression of the trans-membrane drug efflux pump P-glycoprotein is one of the major mechanisms by which cancer cells develop multidrug resistance. We demonstrated previously that noncytotoxic doses of various genotoxic chemicals, particularly DNA cross-linking agents, preferentially altered expression of inducible genes. These effects occurred principally at the transcriptional level and were closely correlated temporally with DNA damage. Because the mdr1 gene coding for P-glycoprotein has been reported to be highly inducible, we were interested in the effects of genotoxic cancer chemotherapy agents on its expression. We report that the DNA cross-linking agent mitomycin C significantly suppressed mRNA and protein expression of P-glycoprotein and decreased the rate of drug efflux. Mitomycin C pretreatment also significantly increased the sensitivity of cancer cells to subsequent killing by the P-glycoprotein substrate doxorubicin, decreasing the ED50 by 5- to 10-fold. Suppression of P-glycoprotein expression was also observed with subtoxic doses of the DNA cross-linking agents cisplatin, BMS181174, and chromium(VI). These effects occurred in both human and rodent cell lines; in cell lines derived from colon, breast, leukemia, neuroblastoma, and hepatoma tumors; and under both monolayer and "spheroid" culture conditions. These results suggest the basis for novel clinical cancer chemotherapy regimens aimed at drug-resistant tumors, in which a sub-chemotherapeutic dose of a DNA cross-linking agent is used to modulate the multidrug resistance phenotype prior to treatment with a second cytotoxic agent.

Molecular epidemiology: carcinogen-DNA adducts and genetic susceptibility.

Molecular epidemiological studies assess individual chemical exposures and genetic susceptibility in order to identify cancer risk. Such studies incorporate the development, application, and validation of biomarkers of cancer risk in order to enhance cancer risk assessments, focus cancer prevention strategies, and elucidate mechanisms of carcinogenesis. Current studies of molecular epidemiology are based upon an understanding of the complex, multistage process of carcinogenesis and interindividual variations in response to carcinogenic exposures. Quantitative methods to measure human exposures to carcinogens continue to improve and have been successfully applied to a number of epidemiological studies. Genetic predispositions to cancer, both inherited and acquired, have been and continue to be identified. The combined approach of associating genetic polymorphisms with carcinogen-DNA adduct measurements, in order to assess cancer risk, is showing considerable promise. It is hoped that, in the future, molecular epidemiologists will be able to develop a risk profile for an individual that includes assessment of multiple biomarkers. The field has the near-term potential to have a significant impact on regulatory quantitative risk assessments, which may aid in the determination of allowable exposures. Molecular epidemiological data may also aid in the identification of individuals who will most benefit by cancer prevention strategies.

Synthesis and structural characterization of the N2G-mitomycin C-N2G interstrand cross-link in a model synthetic 23 base pair oligonucleotide DNA duplex.

Mitomycin C (MMC) is a genotoxic cancer chemotherapeutic agent that reacts principally at the N2 position of guanine to form one of two predominant monoadducts, or a G-G interstrand cross-link at CpG sites, or a G-G intrastrand cross-link at GpG sites. Previous studies of MMC adduction have principally used very short duplex oligonucleotides (5-15 bp) or very long native duplex DNAs. We examined the formation and structural features of the MMC CpG interstrand cross-link on a model 23 bp synthetic oligonucleotide duplex having the (upper strand) sequence 5'-ATAAATACGTATTTATTTATAAA-3'. MMC was reacted with the duplex oligonucleotide in the presence of sodium dithionite at ratios of 6 mM dithionite: 1.5 mM MMC:0.03 mM duplex. The yield of cross-link in the reaction was determined to be approximately 4.8% by denaturing gel electrophoresis, which represented approximately 75% of the total bound MMC. The cross-linked DNA was isolated to greater than 97% purity in a single step by high temperature size exclusion column chromatography. Characterization of the purified product confirmed that the complex contained exclusively the N2G-MMC-N2G cross-link at the single central CpG site. CD spectroscopy demonstrated a negative band at approximately 290-320 nm which has previously been shown to be characteristic of the MMC cross-link. The relative intensity of this band compared to those reported for shorter duplexes suggested that the majority of the duplex is in a normal B-DNA helical configuration. Base-specific chemical footprinting techniques also indicated that there were subtle but distinct structural perturbations principally within the central four to six base pairs containing and adjacent to the cross-link.

An Mll-AF9 fusion gene made by homologous recombination causes acute leukemia in chimeric mice: a method to create fusion oncogenes.

Homologous recombination in embryonal stem cells has been used to produce a fusion oncogene, thereby mimicking chromosomal translocations that frequently result in formation of tumor-specific fusion oncogenes in human malignancies. AF9 sequences were fused into the mouse Mll gene so that expression of the Mll-AF9 fusion gene occurred from endogenous Mll transcription control elements, as in t(9;11) found in human leukemias. Chimeric mice carrying the fusion gene developed tumors, which were restricted to acute myeloid leukemias despite the widespread activity of the Mll promoter. Onset of perceptible disease was preceded by expansion of ES cell derivatives in peripheral blood. This novel use of homologous recombination formally proves that chromosomal translocations contribute to malignancy and provides a general strategy to create fusion oncogenes for studying their role in tumorigenesis.