Major drivers of soil acidification over 30 years differ in paddy and upland soils in China.

Elevated nitrogen (N) fertilization has largely increased crop production in China, but also increased acidification risks, thereby threatening crop yields. However, natural soil acidification due to bicarbonate (HCO3) leaching and base cation (BC) removal by crop harvest also affect soil acidity whereas the input of HCO3 and BC via fertilizers and manure counteract soil acidification. Insights in rates and drivers of soil acidification in different land use types is too limited to support crop- and site-specific mitigation strategies. In this study, we assessed the historical changes in cropland acidification rates and their drivers for the period 1985-2019 at 151 sites in a typical Chinese county with the combined nutrient and soil acidification model VSD+. VSD+ could well reproduce long-term changes in pH and in the BC concentrations of calcium, magnesium and potassium between 1985 and 2019 in non-calcareous soils. In paddy soils, the acidity production rate decreased from 1985 onwards, mainly driven by a pH-induced reduction in HCO3 leaching and N transformations. In upland soils, however, acidity production was mainly driven by N transformations and hardly changed over time. Crop BC removal by harvesting played a minor role in both paddy and upland soils, but its relative importance increased in paddy soils. The acidity input was partly neutralized by HCO3 input from fertilizers and manure, which decreased over time due to a change from ammonia bicarbonate to urea. Soil buffering by both BC and aluminium release decreased in paddy soils due to a reduction in net acidity production, while it stayed relatively constant in upland soils. We conclude that acidification management in paddy soils requires a focus on avoiding high HCO3 leaching whereas the management in upland soils should focus on balancing N with recycling organic manure and crop residues.

Effects of soil amendments on soil acidity and crop yields in acidic soils: A world-wide meta-analysis.

Soil amendments, including lime, biochar, industrial by-products, manure, and straw are used to alleviate soil acidification and improve crop productivity. Quantitative insight in the effect of these amendments on soil pH is limited, hampering their appropriate use. Until now, there is no comprehensive evaluation of the effects of soil amendments on soil acidity and yield, accounting for differences in soil properties. We synthesized 832 observations from 142 papers to explore the impact of these amendments on crop yield, soil pH and soil properties, focusing on acidic soils with a pH value below 6.5. Application of lime, biochar, by-products, manure, straw and combinations of them significantly increased soil pH by 15%, 12%, 15%, 13%, 5% and 17%, and increased crop yield by 29%, 57%, 50%, 55%, 9%, and 52%, respectively. The increase of soil pH was positively correlated with the increase in crop yield, but the relationship varied among crop types. The most substantial increases in soil pH and yield in response to soil amendments were found under long-term applications (>6 year) in strongly acidic (pH < 5.0) sandy soils with a low cation exchange capacity (CEC, <100 mmolc kg-1) and low soil organic matter content (SOM, <12 g kg-1). Most amendments increased soil CEC, SOM and base saturation (BS) and decreased soil bulk density (BD), but lime application increased soil BD (1%) induced by soil compaction. Soil pH and yield were positively correlated with CEC, SOM and BS, while yield declined when soils became compacted. Considering the impact of the amendments on soil pH, soil properties and crop yield as well as their costs, the addition of lime, manure and straw seem most appropriate in acidic soils with an initial pH range from <5.0, 5.0-6.0 and 6.0-6.5, respectively.

Forms of nitrogen inputs regulate the intensity of soil acidification.

Soil acidification induced by reactive nitrogen (N) inputs can alter the structure and function of terrestrial ecosystems. Because different N-transformation processes contribute to the production and consumption of H+ , the magnitude of acidification likely depends on the relative amounts of organic N (ON) and inorganic N (IN) inputs. However, few studies have explicitly measured the effects of N composition on soil acidification. In this study, we first conducted a meta-analysis to test the effects of ON or IN inputs on soil acidification across 53 studies in grasslands. We then compared soil acidification across five different ON:IN ratios and two input rates based on long-term field N addition experiments. The meta-analysis showed that ON had weaker effects on soil acidification than IN when the N addition rate was above 20 g N m-2 year-1 . The field experiment confirmed the findings from meta-analysis: N addition with proportions of ON ≥ 20% caused less soil acidification, especially at a high input rate (30 g N m-2 year-1 ). Structural equation model analysis showed that this result was largely due to a relatively low rate of H+ production from ON as NH3 volatilization and uptake of ON and NH4 + by the dominant grass species Leymus chinensis (which are both lower net contributors to H+ production) result in less NH4 + available for nitrification (which is a higher net contributor to H+ production). These results indicate that the evaluation of soil acidification induced by N inputs should consider N forms and manipulations of relative composition of N inputs may provide an effective approach to alleviate the N-induced soil acidification.

Calculation of spatially explicit amounts and intervals of agricultural lime applications at county-level in China.

Liming is a long-established and widely used agricultural practice to ameliorate soil acidity and improve crop production. Sustainable liming strategies for regional applications require information on both lime requirements and liming intervals given land use and soil dependent acidification rates. We developed a method to optimize lime requirements and liming intervals at regional level. Lime requirements were based on soil pH buffering capacity and liming intervals were estimated by ongoing soil acidity production, derived from major cations and anions balances in cropland systems. About 66% of croplands in Qiyang required liming to raise soil pH to 6.5, with a total lime requirement of 2.4 × 105 t CaCO3, with an average rate of 2.4 t ha-1 for paddy soils and 2.6 t ha-1 for upland soils. The remaining 34% were mainly calcareous soils. Nutrient management practices and crop rotations, affecting N transformation and crop removal, were the main drivers controlling the spatial variation in total acid production in non-calcareous soils, on average contributing 73% and 25%, respectively. Under current soil acidification rates, 33% of Qiyang's croplands would need liming within 30 years after raising the soil pH to 6.5. Averaged liming interval was 20 years, and 6.8 t ha-1 would be required to maintain soil pH ranges between 5.5 and 6.5. Areas with high soil acidification risk were mostly located in the southeast of Qiyang.

Atmospheric nitrogen deposition: A review of quantification methods and its spatial pattern derived from the global monitoring networks.

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition is a vital component of the global N cycle. Excessive N deposition on the Earth's surface has adverse impacts on ecosystems and humans. Quantification of atmospheric N deposition is indispensable for assessing and addressing N deposition-induced environmental issues. In the present review, we firstly summarized the current methods applied to quantify N deposition (wet, dry, and total N deposition), their advantages and major limitations. Secondly, we illustrated the long-term N deposition monitoring networks worldwide and the results attained via such long-term monitoring. Results show that China faces heavier N deposition than the United States, European countries, and other countries in East Asia. Next, we proposed a framework for estimating the atmospheric wet and dry N deposition using a combined method of surface monitoring, modeling, and satellite remote sensing. Finally, we put forth the critical research challenges and future directions of the atmospheric N deposition. CAPSULE: A review of quantification methods and the global data on nitrogen deposition and a systematic framework was proposed for quantifying nitrogen deposition.

Impacts of nitrogen fertilizer type and application rate on soil acidification rate under a wheat-maize double cropping system.

Nitrogen (N) fertilizer-induced soil acidification in Chinese croplands is well-known, but insight in the impacts of different N fertilizer management approaches (fertilizer type and rate) on soil acidification rates is very limited. Here, we conducted a field experiment on a moderate acid soil to quantify soil acidification rates in response to N fertilization by different fertilizer types and N rates through monitoring the fate of elements (mainly nutrients) related to H+ production and consumption. Two N fertilizer types (urea and NH4Cl) and three N rates (control, optimized and conventional, 0/120/240 kg N ha-1 for wheat, 0/160/320 kg N ha-1 for maize) were included. Nitrogen addition led to an average H+ production of 4.0, 8.7, 11.4, 29.7 and 52.6 keq ha-1 yr-1, respectively, for the control, optimized urea, conventional urea, optimized NH4Cl and conventional NH4Cl plots. This was accompanied with a decline in soil base saturation of 1-10% and in soil pH of 0.1-0.7 units in the topsoil (0-20 cm). Removal of base cations by crop harvesting and N transformations contributed ~70% and ~20% to the H+ production in the urea treated plots, being ~20% and ~75% in the NH4Cl treated plots, respectively. The large NH4+ input via fertilization in the NH4Cl treated plots strongly enhanced the H+ production induced by N transformations. The low contribution of N transformations to the H+ production in the urea treated plots was due to the limited NO3- leaching, induced by the high N losses to air caused by denitrification. Increased N addition by urea, however, strongly increased H+ production by enhanced plant uptake of base cations, mainly due to a large potassium uptake in straw. Our results highlight the important role of optimizing fertilizer form and N rate as well as straw return to the field in alleviating soil acidification.

CT imaging features and image evolution characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019. / 2019å† çŠ¶ç— æ¯’ç— çš„è‚ºéƒ¨CTå½±åƒå­¦è¡¨çŽ°åŠç— ç¶æ¼”å˜ç‰¹ç‚¹.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze the imaging features of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in different periods, and summarize the characteristics with itsdevelopment. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the CT image data of COVID-19 patients diagnosed by nucleic acid test and CT examination in 57 patients in Zhuzhou Central Hospital and Zhuzhou First People's Hospital, and summarized the characteristics of CT imaging and the development of lesions. RESULTS: Most of the cases were characterized by peripheral distribution of lesions. A total of 37 cases (64.91%) were purely peripherally distributed, 16 cases (28.07%) coexisted with peripheral and mid-internal distribution, and 4 cases (7.02%) had simple mid-inner band distribution. In peripherally distributed cases, the long axis of the lesion was mostly parallel to the pleura in 36 cases (63.16%). In the case of inner-middle zone distribution, the long axis of the lesion was mostly parallel and surrounded the bronchial vascular bundle, or distributed along the lung lobules (31.58%). All cases had ground-glass-density foci, 31 cases (54.38%) had fine grid shadows in the lesions, 46 cases (80.70%) had thick vascular shadows in the lesions, and 23 cases (40.35%) showed signs of bronchial inflation. Among the 10 cases of "wrinkling shape" lesions in the first CT examination, except for 1 case without reexamination, the remaining 9 cases had different degrees of absorption in the second CT examination. Among the 26 cases of "wrinkling shape" lesions in the second CT examination, except for 11 cases without reexamination, the other 15 patients had different degrees of absorption in the third CT examination. CONCLUSIONS: The early CT manifestations of COVID-19 are mostly ground-glass-density foci distributed in the subpleural region, some of which are distributed near the bronchial blood vessel bundle and in the central area of the lobule. As the course of the disease progresses, there may be varying degrees of solid components in the lesion. When the lesions show a "wrinkling shape", it is often suggested that the lesions will evolve towards the direction of absorption. These characteristics are of great value in assisting clinical diagnosis and dynamically observing changes undersuch condition.

Modelling long-term impacts of fertilization and liming on soil acidification at Rothamsted experimental station.

Liming is widely used to reduce the impacts of soil acidification and optimize soil pH for agricultural production. Whether models can simulate the effect of liming on soil pH, and base saturation (BS), and thereby guide lime application, is still largely unknown. Long-term experimental data from a grassland (Park Grass, 1965-2012) and arable land (Sawyers Field, 1962-1972) at Rothamsted Research, UK, were thus used to assess the ability of the VSD+ model to simulate the effects of long-term fertilization and liming on soil acidification. The VSD+ model was capable of simulating observed soil pH and BS changes over time in the long-term liming experiments, except for a treatment in which sulphur (S) was added. Normalized Mean Absolute Errors (NMAE) and Normalized Root Mean Square Errors (NRMSE) of simulated and observed pH values, averaged over the observation periods varied between 0.02 and 0.08 (NMAE) and 0.01-0.05 (NRMSE). The acidity budget results for Park Grass suggest that nitrogen (N) transformations contributed most to acidity production, causing predominantly aluminium (Al) exchange in the topsoil (0-23 cm) followed by base cation (BC) release, but in the treatment with S addition, BC uptake had a nearly similar effect on acidity production. However, in Sawyers Field, the acidity budget suggested that BC uptake was the dominant cause of soil acidification, while the impacts of N transformations were limited. Liming was found to sufficiently replenish BC and decrease Al exchange in the topsoil layer. Overall, the VSD+ model can adequately reconstruct the impacts of fertilizer and liming applications on acid neutralizing processes and related soil pH and BC changes at the soil exchange complex.

Cropland acidification increases risk of yield losses and food insecurity in China.

Distinct cropland acidification has been reported in China due to nitrogen (N) fertilizer overuse. However, the impacts on food production and thereby on food security are largely unknown. Yield losses in the period 1980-2050 were therefore assessed by simulating soil pH changes combined with derived pH-yield relationships for wheat, maize and rice. If the N fertilizer input continues to increase at 1% annually, the predicted average soil pH decline is about one unit and relative yield losses are expected to increase from approximately 4%-24% during 2010-2050. If the N fertilizer increase stops in 2020 (N2020), the expected losses are approximately 16% in 2050, which is comparable to a scenario of 100% crop residue return (100%RR). However, if 30% of the N fertilizer is replaced by manure N (30%MR), the losses reduce to near 5% in 2050. Soil acidification was predicted to reverse and expected losses are only 2.5% in 2050 in a combined scenario of N2020, 100%RR and 30%MR. Our results illustrate the potential food insecurity induced by cropland acidification and address the necessity of mitigation.

Enhanced acidification in Chinese croplands as derived from element budgets in the period 1980-2010.

Significant soil pH decrease has been reported in Chinese croplands in response to enhanced chemical fertilizer application and crop yields. However, the temporal and spatial variation of soil acidification rates across Chinese croplands is still unclear. We therefore assessed trends in soil acidification rates across provincial China for the period 1980-2010 by calculating inputs-outputs of major cations and anions in cropland systems. Nitrogen (N) induced proton production increased from 4.7keqH+/ha/yr in 1980 to a peak of 11.0keqH+/ha/yr in 1996 and remained nearly constant after 2000 at a rate of approximately 8.6keqH+/ha/yr. The proton production induced by crop removal increased from 1.2 to 2.3keqH+/ha/yr. The total proton production thus increased from 5.9 to 10.9keqH+/ha/yr in the 30years. As a result, the actual acidification rate, reflected by (base) cation losses, accelerated from 2.3 to 6.2keqH+/ha/yr and the potential acidification rate, reflected by phosphorus accumulation accelerated from 0.2 to 1.3keqH+/ha/yr. The national averaged total acidification rates were thus estimated to increase from 2.6 to 7.6keqH+/ha/yr in the past 30years. The highest soil acidification rate occurred in the Jiangsu Province with a rate of 17.9keqH+/ha/yr, which was due to both high N application rates and high base cation removals by crops and crop residues. The combination of elevated N inputs and decreased N use efficiency (NUE) in response to those N inputs, thus enhancing the nitrate discharge, were the main reasons for the accelerated acidification in Chinese croplands. Considering the expected growth of food demand in the future, and the linkage between grain production and fertilizer N consumption, a further acceleration of soil acidification can thus be expected, unless the N inputs is reduced and/or the NUE is increased substantially.

Modeling soil acidification in typical Chinese cropping systems.

We applied the adapted model VSD+ to assess cropland acidification in four typical Chinese cropping systems (single Maize (M), Wheat-Maize (W-M), Wheat-Rice (W-R) and Rice-Rice (R-R)) on dominant soils in view of its potential threat to grain production. By considering the current situation and possible improvements in field (nutrient) management, five scenarios were designed: i) Business as usual (BAU); ii) No nitrogen (N) fertilizer increase after 2020 (N2020); iii) 100% crop residues return to cropland (100%RR); iv) manure N was applied to replace 30% of chemical N fertilizer (30%MR) and v) Integrated N2020 and 30%MR with 100%RR after 2020 (INMR). Results illustrated that in the investigated calcareous soils, the calcium carbonate buffering system can keep pH at a high level for >150years. In non-calcareous soils, a moderate to strong decline in both base saturation and pH is predicted for the coming decades in the BAU scenario. We predicted that approximately 13% of the considered croplands may suffer from Al toxicity in 2050 following the BAU scenario. The N2020, 100%RR and 30%MR scenarios reduce the acidification rates by 16%, 47% and 99%, respectively, compared to BAU. INMR is the most effective strategy on reducing acidification and leads to no Al toxicity in croplands in 2050. Both improved manure and field management are required to manage acidification in wheat-maize cropping system.

The Role of the Face Itself in the Face Effect: Sensitivity, Expressiveness, and Anticipated Feedback in Individual Compliance.

Face-to-face interactions are central to many individual choices and decision-making issues, such as customer services, sales, promotions, and negotiations. While the face effect, that is, face-to-face interactions are more effective in inducing compliance than other forms of interactions, has been noted in the literature, its mechanism has rarely been explored. This research helps to fill the theoretical void and provides new insights into the face effect with two lab experiments and one field experiment. Study 1, a field experiment conducted in a beauty salon, and Study 2, a lab experiment, show that the face effect is largely attributable to anticipated facial feedback and that the face effect is stronger when individuals are sensitive to face and when the requester's face is expressive. Study 3, using video-simulated face-to-face interactions, demonstrates that anticipated facial feedback, not necessarily actual feedback, is enough to drive the face effect. In so doing, this research furthers our understanding of factors that affect individual compliance in face-to-face interactions in both the "sending" and "receiving" stages. We discuss the theoretical and empirical implications, limitations, and future avenues of research.

Model-Based Analysis of the Long-Term Effects of Fertilization Management on Cropland Soil Acidification.

Agricultural soil acidification in China is known to be caused by the over-application of nitrogen (N) fertilizers, but the long-term impacts of different fertilization practices on intensive cropland soil acidification are largely unknown. Here, we further developed the soil acidification model VSD+ for intensive agricultural systems and validated it against observed data from three long-term fertilization experiments in China. The model simulated well the changes in soil pH and base saturation over the last 20 years. The validated model was adopted to quantify the contribution of N and base cation (BC) fluxes to soil acidification. The net NO3- leaching and NO4+input accounted for 80% of the proton production under N application, whereas one-third of acid was produced by BC uptake when N was not applied. The simulated long-term (1990-2050) effects of different fertilizations on soil acidification showed that balanced N application combined with manure application avoids reduction of both soil pH and base saturation, while application of calcium nitrate and liming increases these two soil properties. Reducing NH4+ input and NO3- leaching by optimizing N management and increasing BC inputs by manure application thus already seem to be effective approaches to mitigating soil acidification in intensive cropland systems.

[Effects of irrigation mode and N application rate on cotton field fertilizer N use efficiency and N losses].

A field experiment was conducted to study the effects of different irrigation modes (drip irrigation and furrow irrigation) and different N application rates (0, 240, 360 and 480 kg N x hm(-2)) on the fertilizer N use efficiency and N losses in a cotton field in Xinjiang, Northwest China. The main N cycling pathways, such as the N uptake by cotton plant, NO3(-)-N residual in soil, NH3 volatilization, NO3(-)-N leaching, and nitrification-denitrification, were quantitatively monitored. Compared with furrow irrigation, drip irrigation increased the seed cotton yield, plant N uptake, and fertilizer N use efficiency significantly. The NO3(-)-N residual in soil was significantly greater under furrow irrigation than under drip irrigation. With the application of fertilizer N, the N loss from NH3 volatilization under drip irrigation occupied 0.06% -0.14% of applied N, and was significantly greater than that under furrow irrigation. The N loss from NO3(-)-N leaching under drip irrigation and furrow irrigation was 4.4% and 8.8% of the applied N, respectively. Compared with furrow irrigation, drip irrigation could significantly decrease the NO3(-)-N leakage rate in leakage water. The nitrification-dinetrification loss under drip irrigation and furrow irrigation was 17.9% and 16.8% of the applied N, respectively. It was suggested that NO3(-)-N leaching and nitrification-denitrification were the main N losses in the cotton fields of Xinjiang.

Large-scale gene trapping in C57BL/6N mouse embryonic stem cells.

We report the construction and analysis of a mouse gene trap mutant resource created in the C57BL/6N genetic background containing more than 350,000 sequence-tagged embryonic stem (ES) cell clones. We also demonstrate the ability of these ES cell clones to contribute to the germline and produce knockout mice. Each mutant clone is identified by a genomic sequence tag representing the exact insertion location, allowing accurate prediction of mutagenicity and enabling direct genotyping of mutant alleles. Mutations have been identified in more than 10,000 genes and show a bias toward the first intron. The trapped ES cell lines, which can be requested from the Texas A&M Institute for Genomic Medicine, are readily available to the scientific community.

Wnk1 kinase deficiency lowers blood pressure in mice: a gene-trap screen to identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

The availability of both the mouse and human genome sequences allows for the systematic discovery of human gene function through the use of the mouse as a model system. To accelerate the genetic determination of gene function, we have developed a sequence-tagged gene-trap library of >270,000 mouse embryonic stem cell clones representing mutations in approximately 60% of mammalian genes. Through the generation and phenotypic analysis of knockout mice from this resource, we are undertaking a functional screen to identify genes regulating physiological parameters such as blood pressure. As part of this screen, mice deficient for the Wnk1 kinase gene were generated and analyzed. Genetic studies in humans have shown that large intronic deletions in WNK1 lead to its overexpression and are responsible for pseudohypoaldosteronism type II, an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by hypertension, increased renal salt reabsorption, and impaired K+ and H+ excretion. Consistent with the human genetic studies, Wnk1 heterozygous mice displayed a significant decrease in blood pressure. Mice homozygous for the Wnk1 mutation died during embryonic development before day 13 of gestation. These results demonstrate that Wnk1 is a regulator of blood pressure critical for development and illustrate the utility of a functional screen driven by a sequence-based mutagenesis approach.

A novel gene, Pog, is necessary for primordial germ cell proliferation in the mouse and underlies the germ cell deficient mutation, gcd.

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the precursor of the germ cells in adult gonads. They arise extra-gonadally and migrate through somatic tissues to the presumptive genital ridges, where they proliferate and differentiate into oogonia or spermatogonia cells. Abnormalities in this developmental process can cause embryonic depletion of germ cells leading to infertility in the adult. We report here that the mouse gcd (germ cell deficient) mutant phenotype, characterized by reduced numbers of PGCs and adult sterility, is due to reduced PGC proliferation rather than aberrant migration and is caused by the partial deletion of a single novel gene, Pog (proliferation of germ cells). Pog is critical for normal PGC proliferation, starting between 9.5 and 10.25 dpc when germ cells begin to migrate to the developing genital ridge. Deletion of Pog is also accompanied by reduced embryonic body weight and, on some genetic backgrounds, embryonic lethality. Thus, in addition to being necessary for PGC proliferation, Pog may have a wider significance in early embryonic development.