Cardiac Changes after Lactate-Guided Conditioning in Young Purebred Arabian Horses.

Cardiac adaptation to conditioning in horses was evaluated after empirical training based on trainers' experience. Twelve purebred Arabian horses, aged (mean ± SD) 28.42 ± 3.75 months, which did not perform any type of exercise prior to the research, were submitted to treadmill conditioning for six weeks. The conditioning program was based on the velocity run by the horse at which the blood lactate concentration, determined in an incremental exercise test (IET), reached 2 mmol/L (V2). The velocity at which the blood lactate concentration reached 4 mmol/L (V4) was also determined. The echocardiograms were performed at rest with pulsed-wave and tissue Doppler imaging in B- and M-modes. All procedures were carried out before and after the conditioning period. The results showed increases in V2 (from 5.2 ± 0.3 to 6.7 ± 0.4 m/s) and V4 (from 5.8 ± 0.4 to 7.6 ± 0.5 m/s) (p < 0.0001). There were also increases in the left ventricle internal diameter at diastole (LVIDd), left ventricle mass (LV mass), and stroke volume (SV), while no changes were observed in the LV free wall thickness and mean and relative wall thicknesses. The conditioning protocol, which was completed by all horses, proved to be safe and efficient, as it improved the aerobic capacity of the animals. Finally, the cardiac remodeling that occurred was mainly associated with the effect of physical training.

Como eu faço no Coração de Atleta: avaliação dos diferentes tipos de adaptação ao exercício / My approach to "Athlete'S Heart": evaluation of the different types of adaptation to exercise

A prática regular de esportes pode induzir adaptações no coração, sendo essa condição comumente chamada de "coração de atleta". As alterações observadas incluem dilatação das câmaras cardíacas, aumento da espessura miocárdica, melhora do enchimento ventricular, aumento da trabeculação do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), dilatação da veia cava inferior, entre outras. Essas alterações também podem ser observadas em algumas doenças cardíacas, como cardiomiopatia (CMP) dilatada, hipertrófica e outras. Dessa forma, os exames de imagem cardíaca são fundamentais na identificação dessas alterações e na diferenciação entre o "coração de atleta" e uma possível cardiopatia.(AU)

Exercise-induced adaptation may occur in amateur and professional athletes. This condition is commonly named "athlete's heart". The alterations observed include dilation of the heart chambers, increased myocardial thickness, improved ventricular filling, increased left ventricular trabeculation, dilation of the inferior vena cava, among others. These changes can also be observed in some heart diseases, such as dilated, hypertrophic and other cardiomyopathies (CMP). Thus, cardiac imaging tests are fundamental in identifying these alterations and in differentiating between "athlete's heart" and possible heart disease. (AU)

Left Cardiac Remodelling Assessed by Echocardiography Is Associated with Rho-Kinase Activation in Long-Distance Runners.

This single-blind and cross-sectional study evaluated the role of Rho-kinase (ROCK) as a biomarker of the cardiovascular remodelling process assessed by echocardiography in competitive long-distance runners (LDRs) during the training period before a marathon race. Thirty-six healthy male LDRs (37.0 ± 5.3 years; 174.0 ± 7.0 height; BMI: 23.8 ± 2.8; V˙ O2-peak: 56.5 ± 7.3 mL·kg-1·min-1) were separated into two groups according to previous training level: high-training (HT, n = 16) ≥ 100 km·week-1 and low-training (LT, n = 20) ≥ 70 and < 100 km·week-1. Also, twenty-one healthy nonactive subjects were included as a control group (CTR). A transthoracic echocardiography was performed and ROCK activity levels in circulating leukocytes were measured at rest (48 h without exercising) the week before the race. The HT group showed a higher left ventricular mass index (LVMi) and left atrial volume index (LAVi) than other groups (p < 0.05, for both); also, higher levels of ROCK activity were found in LDRs (HT = 6.17 ± 1.41 vs. CTR = 1.64 ± 0.66 (p < 0.01); vs. LT = 2.74 ± 0.84; (p < 0.05)). In LDRs a direct correlation between ROCK activity levels and LVMi (r = 0.83; p < 0.001), and LAVi (r = 0.70; p < 0.001) were found. In conclusion, in male competitive long-distance runners, the load of exercise implicated in marathon training is associated with ROCK activity levels and the left cardiac remodelling process assessed by echocardiography.

Exercise-Induced Cardiac Fatigue in Recreational Ultramarathon Runners at Moderate Altitude: Insights From Myocardial Deformation Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Controversy exists on the actual occurrence of exercise-induced cardiac fatigue (EICF) with ultraendurance exercise, as well as on whether factors such as age or training status might predispose to this condition. The present study aimed to assess the occurrence of EICF among recreational ultramarathon runners, as well as to determine potential predictive factors. METHODS: Nineteen male recreational runners (42 ± 12yrs) participated in a 55-km trial race at moderate altitude (1,800-2,500 m). Participants were evaluated before and after the race using Doppler echocardiography and myocardial deformation analysis. EICF was determined as a reduction >5% of either left ventricular global longitudinal strain (LVGLS) or right ventricular free wall strain (RVFWS). Demographical (age, body mass index), training (training experience, volume and intensity), competition (finishing time, relative intensity) and biochemical variables (blood lactate, creatine kinase [CK] and CK-MB) were assessed as predictors of EICF. RESULTS: A significant reduction in LVGLS (20.1 ± 2.1% at baseline vs. 18.8 ± 2.4% at post-race, p = 0.026), but not in RVFWS (27.4 ± 7.0 vs. 24.6 ± 5.3%, p = 0.187), was observed after the race. EICF was present in 47 and 71% of the participants attending to the decrease in LVGLS and RVFWS, respectively. No associations were found between any of the analyzed variables and EICF except for age, which was associated with the magnitude of decrement of RVFWS (r = 0.58, p = 0.030). CONCLUSIONS: Ultramarathon running at moderate altitude seems to induce EICF in a considerable proportion of recreational athletes.

Atrial size and sports. A great training for a greater left atrium: how much is too much?

Athlete's heart results from physiological adaptations to the increased demands of exercise, and left atrial (LA) enlargement (LAE) is a fundamental component. However, LAE occurs in certain pathological conditions and it might represent a diagnostic challenge in athletes. LA volume index (LAVi) by echo is a convenient diagnostic tool for LAE identification. We hypothesized that accumulated lifetime training thousand hours (LTH) would have a main role in LAE. Therefore, our aim was to assess the association between LTH, LAVi and LAE in athletes. Young and middle-aged males with different training levels were included and grouped as recreational (REa, n = 30), competitive (COa, n = 169) and elite (ELa, n = 80) athletes for LTH calculation and echo assessment. LA dimensions resulted greater in ELa when compared to other groups (p < 0.001). LAVi correlated stronger with LTH than with age (p < 0.001). Polynomial regression analysis showed a non-linear, almost triphasic, effect of cumulative training on LA size (p < 0.02). Multivariate logistic regression, including LTH, age, body surface area, systolic blood pressure and other explanatory variables to predict LAE, showed LTH as the sole significant factor [OR 1.45 (CI 1.1-1.92), p < 0.008]. ROC analysis found an optimal cut off point of 3.6 LTH for LAE identification (AUC = 0.84, p < 0.001. RR = 5.65, p < 0.001). We conclude that LAE associates with LTH more than with other clinical parameters, and with less impact at higher amounts of LTH. Lifetime training greater than 3600 hours increases the probability of finding LAE in athletes. Future research should provide more insights and implications of these findings.

Fatiga cardíaca en corredores de ultra trail, observada por parámetros de nuevas técnicas ecocardiográficas / Cardiac Fatigue in Ultra-Marathon Runners Measured with Novel Techniques in Echocardiography

RESUMEN Introducción: El ejercicio físico intenso y prolongado puede producir adaptaciones fisiológicas y cambios agudos en el sistema cardiovascular, que han sido motivo de estudio en múltiples oportunidades. En este contexto, algunos autores sostienen que estas alteraciones agudas y transitorias serían adjudicables a la fatiga cardíaca. Objetivos: Examinar los cambios ecocardiográficos observados en los deportistas de ultratrail o ultramaratón (carreras de montaña con recorridos superiores a 42 km) en pre- y posesfuerzo mediante técnicas de deformación miocárdica por speckle tracking, teniendo en cuenta algunas características de la población (sexo, edad, carga de entrenamiento semanal). Material y métodos: Se reclutaron 28 participantes para ser evaluados antes y después del ejercicio (dentro de la primera hora posterior a aquel) utilizando ecocardiografía Doppler y nuevas técnicas ecocardiográficas (posprocesamiento). Se excluyeron 5 deportistas, 2 por presentar Regular ventana ecocardiográfica ecocardiográfica que no permitía visualizar correctamente el borde endomiocárdico y 3 por no haber finalizado la carrera. Se realizó una estadística descriptiva convencional y el análisis comparativo para datos apareados (pre- y posesfuerzo) mediante el test t de Student. Resultados: La mediana de edad de los deportistas fue de 38 ± 9 años, con predominancia de sexo masculino (n=17; 65%). En el ecocardiograma basal, encontramos función sistólica biventricular conservada, media de strain longitudinal global (SLG) de -19 ± 2% y media de strain de la pared libre del ventrículo derecho (SPLVd) de -25 ± 3%. En la evaluación posesfuerzo, se observaron alteraciones significativas al compararlas con los datos del ecocardiograma basal, como caída de la fracción de eyección, disminución del strain longitudinal global (SLG) y del SPLVd, y aumento del volumen del Vd. La torsión ventricular no se vio afectada. Conclusión: Después del ejercicio intenso se observa una disminución de los parámetros de deformación miocárdica medidos por speckle tracking, esto se interpreta como fatiga cardíaca inducida por el ejercicio.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Intense and prolonged physical exercise can produce physiological adaptations and acute changes in the cardiovascular system that have been the subject of study multiple times. In this context some authors speak that these acute and transient alterations would be attributable to cardiac fatigue. Objective: The objective of this work is to examine the echocardiographic changes observed in ultra trail athletes (mountain races over 42 kilometers) pre and post effort, according to population characteristics (sex, age, weekly training load), using techniques of myocardial deformation by speckle traking. Material and methods: Twenty-eight participants were evaluated pre and post exercise (within one hour after exertion) using Doppler echocardiography and new echocardiographic techniques (post processing). Conventional descriptive statistics and comparative analysis were performed for paired data using a T test. Results: The median age of the patients was 38 ± 9 years with male predominance (N17 / 65%). In the baseline echocardiogram, we found preserved bi-ventricular systolic function, mean global longitudinal strain (GLS) of -19% ± 2, mean right ventricular free wall strain (FWSVd) -25% ± 3. In the Post-stress evaluation significant alterations were observed when compared with the baseline echocardiogram data, such as drop in ejection fraction, decrease in GLS, FWSVd and increase in volume of you. Ventricular torsion was not affected. Conclusion: Post intense exercise is observed a decrease in myocardial deformation parameters measured by Speckle tracking, this is interpreted as cardiac fatigue induced by the exercise.

Dimensiones aórticas en deportistas de elite / Aortic Diameters in Elite Athletes

RESUMEN Introducción: Algunos autores sugieren que la dilatación aórtica forma parte del corazón de atleta. Las guías recientes proponen indexar los diámetros aórticos por superficie corporal (SC). En deportistas esta variable puede aumentar solo a expensas de la masa muscular y la indexación podría subestimar las dimensiones. El objetivo del estudio fue comparar los diámetros aórticos en jugadores de rugby de elite vs controles, evaluando distintas formas de cuantificación. Material y métodos: Se cuantificó mediante ecocardiografía el diámetro aórtico máximo (AoMax) y el diámetro máximo indexado a SC (AoSC). Se calculó en forma adicional el peso ideal esperado para cada individuo y se estableció el diámetro aórtico indexado por SC esperada (AoSCe). Se definió como dilatación un AoMax mayor que 40 mm o un AoSC/AoSCe mayor que 21 mm/m². Resultados: El AoMax fue mayor en deportistas (34,9 ± 2,6 vs 32,4 ± 2,9 mm; p < 0,01). Los atletas tuvieron una SC significativamente mayor y, en este contexto, presentaron menor AoSC (15,6 ± 1,2 vs 16,2 ± 1,6 mm/m2; p = 0,02). Al realizar el cálculo del peso ideal y comparar el AoSCe, no se observaron diferencias (16,6 ± 1,3 vs 16,3 ± 1,3 mm/m2; p = 0,2). El porcentaje de pacientes con AoMax mayor que 40 mm fue similar en controles y deportistas (2,3% y 1,7%; p = NS). Ningún paciente presentó diámetros indexados en rango patológico. Conclusiones: Los deportistas presentan mayores diámetros aórticos en términos absolutos, en contexto de una mayor SC. Debido al desarrollo muscular, la indexación por SC podría subestimar las dimensiones. El cálculo del AoSCe podría ser un parámetro útil. Las dimensiones aórticas en rango patológico deben ser consideradas anormales.

ABSTRACT Background: Some authors suggest that aortic dilatation is part of the athlete's heart. The recent guidelines recommend indexing aortic diameters by body surface area (BSA). This variable can be greater in athletes due to increased muscle mass, and indexing for this parameter might underestimate the measurements. Objective: The aim of this study was to compare aortic dimensions between elite rugby athletes and controls, evaluating different methods of quantification. Methods: Maximum aortic diameter (MAD) and maximum diameter indexed by BSA (MAD-BSA) were quantified by echocardiography. The expected ideal weight was calculated for each individual and MAD was indexed by the expected body surface area (eBSA). Aortic dilatation was defined as MAD >40 mm or MAD-BSA to MAD-eBSA ratio >21 mm/m2. Results: Maximum aortic diameter was greater in athletes (34.9±2.6 mm vs.32.4±2.9 mm; p <0.01). Body surface area was significantly increased in athletes and, in this setting, MAD-BSA was lower (15.6±1.2 mm/m2 vs. 16.2±1.6 mm/m2; p=0.02). After estimating the ideal weight, MAD-eBSA was not significantly different in both populations (16.3±1.3 mm/m2 vs. 16.6±1.3 mm/m2; p=0.2) The percentage of patients with MAD >40 mm was similar in controls and athletes (2.3% vs. 1.7%, respectively; p=NS). None of the patients presented indexed diameters above the normal ranges. Conclusions: Elite rugby players present larger maximum aortic diameters in absolute values in the context of greater BSA. Due to increased muscle mass, indexing by BSA could underestimate the measurements. The MAD-eBSA ratio could be a useful parameter. Aortic diameters above reference values should be considered abnormal.

Potential adverse cardiac remodelling in highly trained athletes: still unknown clinical significance.

Moderate endurance exercise has long been considered an essential element to maintain cardiovascular health, and sedentary behaviour in the general population has been related to a significant increase in all-causes of mortality, cardiovascular disease mortality and cardiovascular disease incidence. However, a growing group of people performs an intense exercise that leads to multiple heart adaptive changes that are collectively called "athlete's heart". In this review, we discussed the evidence of cardiac remodelling process secondary to repetitive and strenuous exercise in some predisposed athletes that produces intense and probably deleterious changes in cardiac morphology and function with no clear clinical significance in long-term follow-up. Moreover, we also discussed the individual biological response to exercise assessed by myocardial damage, inflammation, oxidative stress, fibrosis and ventricular hypertrophy biomarkers showing different intensities with equivalent exertion.

Cardiac parameters and endothelial function in a strength athlete: a case report

We aimed to discuss a case of strength training athlete who competes in international competitions regarding cardiac (dimension and function), vascular (endothelium and vascular resistance), hemodynamic (blood pressure), given limited evidence supporting these cardiovascular adaptations as well as concerning endothelial function in long-term high-intensity strength training. Methods: We assessed heart structure and function (echocardiography); systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP); endothelium-dependent vasodilation (flow-mediated dilation, FMD); maximum force tested in the squat, bench press, and deadlift; and maximum oxygen consumption (spirometry). Results: powerlifter's cardiac dimensions (interventricular septum 13 mm; posterior wall thickness 12 mm; LV diastolic diameter 57 mm; left ventricle mass 383 g; LV mass adjusted by body surface area 151.4 g/m2) are above the proposed cutoff values beyond which pathology may be considered. Moreover, cardiovascular function systolic (ejection fraction by Simpson's rule, 71%) is preserved and FMD measure is fairly close and above normal; however, a mild increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure was observed (130/89 mmHg, respectively). Conclusion: Cardiac remodeling cannot be viewed as either pathological or harmful to the cardiovascular system. Furthermore, we showed an improvement in endothelial function.(AU)

Miocardiopatía del atleta / Athlete's cardiomyopathy

La práctica de los deportes de alto nivel es cada vez más común. En el presente trabajo se revisa una serie de conceptos sobre la muerte súbita en atletas y cómo se puede incluir el concepto de "miocardiopatía del atleta" en el conocimiento disponible hasta la fecha. La prevalencia de muerte súbita en atletas es mayor que en la población general (1.5:100,000 contra 0.2:100,000 respectivamente). Esta diferencia puede ser secundaria a ciertos cambios miocárdicos derivados del ejercicio de resistencia. Consistentemente se han estado describiendo cambios anatómicos y funcionales de predominio ventricular derecho que semejan a una displasia arritmogénica, lo que da lugar a la hipótesis de que el ejercicio de resistencia de alto nivel puede inducir una forma de miocardiopatía que explica un cierto número de casos de muerte súbita en atletas. Los profesionales de la salud deben conocer esta posibilidad de riesgo en atletas entrenados, al tiempo que deben estimular la realización de ejercicio moderado regular como una práctica saludable en la población general.

High performance sports practice is more common every day. In the present work we evaluate several concepts regarding sudden death among athletes and the recently described "Athlete's cardiomyopathy". The prevalence of sudden death among athletes is higher than among the general population (1.5:100,000 versus 0.2:100,000 respectively). This difference can be related to myocardial changes derived from endurance exercise. There are consistent descriptions of anatomical and functional changes, more specific to the right ventricle that simulate an arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. This can originate the hypothesis that such a cardiomyopathy can explain a certain number of sudden deaths among athletes. As healthcare professionals we have to be aware of this possibility among trained athletes, although we must continue to encourage moderate physical activity as a healthy behaviour among the general population.

A six-time Ultraman winner and a normal heart: A case report.

Number of subjects currently participating in high-endurance aerobic exercise training regimens and competitions has substantially increased in recent years. While there is no doubt that regular exercise practice is fundamental for the maintenance of a good health, there have been reports of cardiac structural changes of subjects exposed to strenuous endurance physical exercise. This article reports a case of a 47-year-old male very successful sportsman-including being a six-time Ultraman winner-who has accumulated more than 50,000 h of training and competition in his 35-year career, averaging 25-30 h/week. Despite this huge amount of aerobic exercise, about 25 times larger than typically recommended dose for health purposes (i.e. 75 min of vigorous exercise per week), no major abnormalities were detected in electrocardiograms (rest and maximal exercise), transthoracic echocardiogram, and magnetic resonance imaging. In fact, after this complete evaluation, his heart was found to be quite normal.