Inter and intra-island genetic structure and differentiation of the endemic Bolle's Laurel Pigeon (Columba bollii) in the Canary archipelago.

Islands provide excellent settings for studying the evolutionary history of species, since their geographic isolation and relatively small size limit gene flow between populations, and promote divergence and speciation. The endemic Bolle's Laurel Pigeon Columba bollii is an arboreal frugivorous bird species distributed on laurel forests in four islands of the Canary archipelago. To elucidate the population genetics, we genotyped ten microsatellite loci using DNA obtained from non-invasive samples collected across practically all laurel forest remnants, and subsequently grouped into eight sampling sites. Analyses including F-statistics, Bayesian clustering approaches, isolation by distance tests and population graph topologies, were used to infer the genetic diversity and the population differentiation within and among insular populations. Additionally, we evaluated the effect of null alleles on data analysis. Low genetic diversity was found in all populations of Bolle's Laurel Pigeon, with no significant differences in diversity among them. However, significant genetic differentiation was detected among all populations, with pigeons from La Palma and El Hierro exhibiting the closest affinity. Bayesian clustering supported population separation between islands, and also detected fine-scale structure within the Tenerife and La Gomera populations. Our results suggest that, despite columbids have a high movement ability, they can show signature of genetic divergence among populations, particularly on oceanic islands. Geological history of the islands and distribution range of habitats could have close influence on the evolutionary trajectories of these birds. This approach can provide practical tools to implement appropriate conservation measures for range-restricted species and their habitat.

Mitochondrial Genomes of Streptopelia decaocto: Insights into Columbidae Phylogeny.

In this research, the mitochondrial genome of the Streptopelia decaocto was sequenced and examined for the first time to enhance the comprehension of the phylogenetic relationships within the Columbidae. The complete mitochondrial genome of Streptopelia decaocto (17,160 bp) was structurally similar to the recognized members of the Columbidae family, but with minor differences in gene size and arrangement. The structural AT content was 54.12%. Additionally, 150 mitochondrial datasets, representing valid species, were amassed in this investigation. Maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) phylogenetic trees and evolutionary time relationships of species were reconstructed based on cytb gene sequences. The findings from the phylogenetic evaluations suggest that the S. decaocto was classified under the Columbinae subfamily, diverging from the Miocene approximately 8.1 million years ago, indicating intricate evolutionary connections with its close relatives, implying a history of species divergence and geographic isolation. The diversification of the Columbidae commenced during the Late Oligocene and extended into the Miocene. This exploration offers crucial molecular data for the S. decaocto, facilitating the systematic taxonomic examination of the Columbidae and Columbiformes, and establishing a scientific foundation for species preservation and genetic resource management.

Using Citizen Science and Field Surveys to Document the Introduction, Establishment, and Rapid Spread of the Bare-Eyed Pigeon, Patagioenas corensis, on the Island of Saint-Martin, West Indies.

Early reporting of the introduction and establishment of exotic species is of paramount importance for successful management. Here, we report the introduction and rapid spread of the Bare-eyed Pigeon, Patagioenas corensis, on the binational island of Saint-Martin, the West Indies. This range-restricted species naturally occurs in arid coastal areas of Columbia and Venezuela and nearby islands. Its introduction on Saint-Martin represents an expansion of about 1000 km beyond its established native range. Using observations recorded in eBird and results from a recent field survey, we show that since its introduction, most probably between late 2012 and early 2013, the species has expanded fast in Saint-Martin and has recently broadened its habitat to include anthropized, built areas. The expansion of Bare-eyed Pigeon on Saint-Martin and the neighboring Leeward Islands, possibly facilitated by climate change in the future, could be a threat to both native columbid species and other bird species through competition for resources. We therefore recommend that local authorities and stakeholders rapidly eradicate the species or at least prevent its further spread on Saint-Martin, possibly though listing it as a game species, while it is still possible to do so.

Biogeographic history of pigeons and doves drives the origin and diversification of their parasitic body lice.

Despite their extensive diversity and ecological importance, the history of diversification for most groups of parasitic organisms remains relatively understudied. Elucidating broad macroevolutionary patterns of parasites is challenging, often limited by the availability of samples, genetic resources, and knowledge about ecological relationships with their hosts. In this study, we explore the macroevolutionary history of parasites by focusing on parasitic body lice from doves. Building on extensive knowledge of ecological relationships and previous phylogenomic studies of their avian hosts, we tested specific questions about the evolutionary origins of the body lice of doves, leveraging whole genome data sets for phylogenomics. Specifically, we sequenced whole genomes from 68 samples of dove body lice, including representatives of all body louse genera from 51 host taxa. From these data, we assembled >2,300 nuclear genes to estimate dated phylogenetic relationships among body lice and several outgroup taxa. The resulting phylogeny of body lice was well supported, although some branches had conflicting signal across the genome. We then reconstructed ancestral biogeographic ranges of body lice and compared the body louse phylogeny to phylogeny of doves, and also to a previously published phylogeny of the wing lice of doves. Divergence estimates placed the origin of body lice in the late Oligocene. Body lice likely originated in Australasia and dispersed with their hosts during the early Miocene, with subsequent codivergence and host switching throughout the world. Notably, this evolutionary history is very similar to that of dove wing lice, despite the stronger dispersal capabilities of wing lice compared to body lice. Our results highlight the central role of the biogeographic history of host organisms in driving the evolutionary history of their parasites across time and geographic space.

Neighbour-stranger discrimination in an African wood dove inhabiting equatorial rainforest.

We investigated within- and between-individual song variation and song-based neighbour-stranger discrimination in a non-learning bird species, the blue-headed wood-dove (Turtur brehmeri), which inhabits lowland rainforests of West and Central Africa. We found that songs of this species are individually specific and have a high potential for use in individual recognition based on the time-frequency pattern of note distribution within song phrases. To test whether these differences affect behaviour, we conducted playback experiments with 19 territorial males. Each male was tested twice, once with the songs of a familiar neighbour and once with the songs of an unfamiliar stranger. We observed that males responded more aggressively to playback of a stranger's songs: they quickly approached close to the speaker and spent more time near it. However, no significant differences between treatments were observed in the vocal responses. In addition, we explored whether responses differed based on the song frequency of the focal male and/or that of the simulated intruder (i.e., playback), as this song parameter is inversely related to body size and could potentially affect males' decisions to respond to other birds. Song frequency parameters (of either the focal male or the simulated intruder) had no effect on the approaching response during playback. However, we found that the pattern of response after playback was significantly affected by the song frequency of the focal male: males with lower-frequency songs stayed closer to the simulated intruder for a longer period of time without singing, while males with higher-frequency songs returned more quickly to their initial song posts and resumed singing. Together, these results depict a consistently strong response to strangers during and after playback that is dependent on a male's self-assessment rather than assessment of a rival's strength based on his song frequency. This work provides the first experimental evidence that doves (Columbidae) can use songs for neighbour-stranger discrimination and respond according to a "dear enemy" scheme that keeps the cost of territory defence at a reasonable level.

Social attributes shape antipredator behavior strategies in the ruddy ground-dove.

The cost-benefit of social behavior depends on group size and the social interaction. As group size increases, competition for resources increases, while individual vigilance may decrease due to the lower probability of individual predation or increased competition for resources. To test predictions of the "many eyes hypothesis" and the "competition hypothesis", we investigated the effects of social attributes on the vigilance, foraging, direct conflict and sex on social groups of ruddy ground-doves (Columbina talpacoti) in an urban area. We observed that the number of conspecifics did not influence individual foraging behavior, instead, the vigilance decreased as flock size increased. Moreover, the number of conflicts within the flock negatively affected individual vigilance. However, larger flocks exhibited more direct conflicts, and males were more frequently involved in social conflicts, regardless of the sex ratio of the flock. Finally, the investment in both vigilance and foraging was not influenced by the sex of the focal individual or the sex ratio of the flock. Our findings indicate that conspecific numbers and flock social organization significantly influence the cost-benefit dynamics of flocking behavior. Larger flocks enhance vigilance for predator detection but come at an individual cost due to increased resource competition and conflicts.

A cinco siglos de la introducción de la paloma de Castilla (Columba livia Gmelin, 1789) en el Perú

La paloma de Castilla (Columba livia Gmelin, 1789) originaria de África y Eurasia se encuentra ampliamente distribuida en la mayor parte de Europa, Asia occidental, África y América. Columba livia fue introducida en el Perú por los españoles en el siglo XVI. Habita en zonas urbanas y rurales; en las últimas décadas su población ha crecido de manera exponencial alrededor del mundo; se considera que es una especie comensal del ser humano y en algunos casos en las ciudades que coloniza, causa daño a la infraestructura y constituye un riesgo en la salud pública. Si bien su origen es silvestre se comporta como una de las especies con mayor interacción con los humanos. El incremento de su población en las ciudades la ha convertido en una especie plaga. En esta revisión se describe el estado actual del conocimiento de las poblaciones de Columba livia, sus posibles efectos sobre la salud de la población humana, el ornato público y el análisis de su condición de especie exótica invasora, a cinco siglos de su introducción en el Perú.

The Castile pigeon (Columba livia Gmelin, 1789), native to Africa and Eurasia, is widely distributed in most of Europe, western Asia, Africa and America. Columba livia was introduced to Peru by the Spanish in the 16th century. It lives in urban and rural areas; in recent decades its population has grown exponentially around the world; it is considered to be a commensal species of the human being and in some cases in the cities it colonizes, it causes damage to the infrastructure and constitutes a risk to public health. Although its origin is wild, it behaves as one of the species with the greatest interaction with humans. The increase in its population in cities has turned it into a pest species. This review describes the current state of knowledge of Columba livia populations, its possible effects on the health of the human population, public ornamentation and the analysis of its status as an invasive exotic species, five centuries after its introduction into the Peru.

Molecular characterization and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in free-living animals in Iran: Effect of One Health.

To understand the transmission of Toxoplasma gondii, this parasite's genetic diversity distribution in free-living hosts is essential. This research's objective is the molecular genotyping of T. gondii isolates from the brain and muscles of Columbidae, Corvidae, Rattus, and Felidae of Mianeh County, East-Azerbaijan Province, Northwest Iran. Three hundred fifty samples were taken. For the genotyping of T. gondii, the GRA6 gene was amplified and digested by the Tru1I (MseI) enzyme. Results of RFLP were confirmed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. In total, 52%, 34%, 24%, and 50% of Columbidae, Corvidae, Rattus, and Felidae were positive for T. gondii DNA, respectively. All isolated Columbidae were identified as genotype III (100%). Also, 94.1% and 5.9% of Corvidae isolates, 84.4% and 15.6% of the Rattus isolates, and 51.7% and 48.3% of the Felidae isolates belonged to genotypes III and II, respectively. This study is the first to evaluate genetic similarity and phylogenetic analysis between many definitive and intermediated hosts in northwestern Iran. The finding indicates that the T. gondii cycle is maintained among these hosts. As a result, their presence in the environment can be a risk factor for transmitting the infection to humans. Due to demographic and geographic differences in various regions, further studies are required to determine the genetic population structure.

The relation between columbiform birds (Columba livia) age and gender and infection indices of rhinonyssid and ereynetid mites.

Respiratory systems of birds may be parasitized by rhinonyssid and ereynetid mites, which are commonly found in their nasal cavities. Levels of infection caused by mites in relation to maturity and gender of birds have been poorly investigated. Although Columba livia is the host of both Tinaminyssus and Trispeleognathus species worldwide, there are no data on prevalence and mean intensity of infection by mites in immature and adult males and females. Therefore, this study aims to analyze infections in relation to characteristics of hosts in southern Brazil. In the sample of 160 birds under study, 24.38% were parasitized by rhinonyssid mites (Tinaminyssus melloi and Tinaminyssus columbae) while 5.0% were infested with ereynetid ones (Trispeleognathus striatus). Infections by rhinonyssid mites in immature and adult birds, as well as in male and female ones, were similar and there were no significant differences in prevalence and mean intensity of infection. However, when infections were analyzed separately, prevalence of T. melloi was significantly higher in immature (19.77%) than in adult (6.76%) birds (p = 0.021). Ereynetid mites, which parasitized only males, were more prevalent in adult (9.46%) than in immature (1.16%) birds (p = 0.025). Reproductive and behavioral characteristics of C. livia (e.g., year-round breeding and social behavior) may enable transmission and maintenance of mite populations, since direct contact among hosts and the presence of mites in their nests are considered forms of transmission. Even though information on the life history of mites is important to understand parasite-host relations, there is a gap in the biology of species commonly found in C. livia, which constitutes an area to be explored.

Spatial Distribution and Habitat Overlap of Five Columbidae Species in the Czech Republic.

Habitat overlap occurs when two species co-exist in the same habitat and utilise the same resources. Using common bird monitoring data in Czech Republic from 2015 and 2016, we compared the affinities of five Columbidae species regarding land use types. Moreover, we analysed the effects of land use types and land use heterogeneity on five species distributions. The aim of the study was to quantify the habitat overlap of five Columbidae species regarding types of land use and land use heterogeneity. We predicted a high level of habitat overlap between most of the species and its occurrence in farmlands and urban areas. Our results confirmed the high habitat overlap of all five Columbidae species in farmlands. An almost complete overlap was recorded between Columba livia domestica and Streptopelia decaocto, as well as between Columba palumbus and Streptopelia turtur. Considering land use utilisation, C. livia and S. decaocto mainly utilised farmlands and urban areas. Furthermore, deciduous forests were utilised by Columba oenas and coniferous and mixed forests by C. palumbus. Finally, S. turtur mainly utilised grasslands and avoided urban areas. We conclude that Columbidae species overlap in spatial distributions, mostly in urban areas, forests, and farmlands. Our study provides a summary of these common species habitat affinities.

Long-distance dispersal of pigeons and doves generated new ecological opportunities for host-switching and adaptive radiation by their parasites.

Adaptive radiation is an important mechanism of organismal diversification and can be triggered by new ecological opportunities. Although poorly studied in this regard, parasites are an ideal group in which to study adaptive radiations because of their close associations with host species. Both experimental and comparative studies suggest that the ectoparasitic wing lice of pigeons and doves have adaptively radiated, leading to differences in body size and overall coloration. Here, we show that long-distance dispersal by dove hosts was central to parasite diversification because it provided new ecological opportunities for parasites to speciate after host-switching. We further show that among extant parasite lineages host-switching decreased over time, with cospeciation becoming the more dominant mode of parasite speciation. Taken together, our results suggest that host dispersal, followed by host-switching, provided novel ecological opportunities that facilitated adaptive radiation by parasites.

Sero-detection of antibodies to Avian metaavulavirus 2 in peri-domestic birds, Nigeria.

Avian metaavulavirus 2 (AMAV-2) previously known as the avian paramyxovirus-2 causes mild to severe respiratory disease, reduced hatchability and infertility of eggs, including increase in white-shelled eggs in chickens and Turkey breeders. When exacerbated by secondary pathogens and environmental stresses, infection is more severe leading to significant economic losses. This study was conducted to determine, if any, the presence of antibodies to Avian metaavulavirus 2 (AMAV-2) in peri-domestic birds in Bauchi State, Nigeria. In all, one hundred sera samples from pigeons (n = 10) and doves (n = 90 were collected in Bauchi, Nigeria. Based on hemagglutination-inhibition (HI) test, overall seroprevalence of 27.0% (27/100) was recorded. In pigeon, the seroprevalence was 80.0% while 21.1% was recorded for dove with HI antibody titers ranging from 3log2 to 8log2. There was statistical significance obtained between dove and pigeon sera tested (p < .05). Until now and to the best of our knowledge, there are no reports on AMAV-2 in poultry or wild birds in Nigeria. This study, thus, provides preliminary information on AMAV-2 seroprevalence in Nigerian peri-domestic birds. The need to conduct further studies in other avian species and wild birds in Nigeria is highlighted.

Ectoparasites of Columbina passerina insularis (Columbiformes) in the National Zoological Park, Havana, Cuba / Ectoparasitas de Columbina passerina insularis (Columbiformes) no Parque Zoológico Nacional, Havana, Cuba

Abstract Ectoparasites of 18 free-living Cuban Ground Doves, Columbina passerina insularis (Columbiformes: Columbidae), captured in the National Zoological Park, Havana, Cuba, were identified. The collected ectoparasites included two species of lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera): Columbicola passerinae (77.1%), and Physconelloides eurysema (50%), as well as four species of feather mites (Astigmata: Falculiferidae): Pterophagus lomatus (83.3%), Byersalges talpacoti (50%), Byersalges phyllophorus (72.2%), and Hyperaspidacarus tridentatus (27.7%). Pterophagus lomatus, B. phyllophorus, and H. tridentatus represent new records for Cuba.

Resumo Foram identificados os ectoparasitas de 18 rolinhas-cinzentas de vida livre, Columbina passerina insularis (Columbiformes: Columbidae), capturadas no Parque Zoológico Nacional de Havana, Cuba. Os ectoparasitas coletados pertencem à duas espécies de piolhos (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera): Columbicola passerinae (77,1%) e Physconelloides eurysema (50%), bem como à quatro espé cies de ácaros de pena (Astigmata: Falculiferidae): Pterophagus lomatus (83,3%), Byersalges talpacoti (50%), Byersalges phyllophorus (72,2%) e Hyperaspidacarus tridentatus (27,7%). Pterophagus lomatus, B. phyllophorus e H. tridentatus representam novos registros para Cuba.

Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecium isolated from pigeon droppings (Columba livia) in the external environment close to hospitals

ABSTRACT Background: Domestic pigeons carry pathogens in their droppings, posing a potential public health problem. Methods: The phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistances of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecium in the feces of urban pigeons near hospitals with intensive care units were measured. Results: Twenty-nine samples showed Enterococcus growth, whereas one was positive for S. aureus. The S. aureus isolate was sensitive to the antibiotics tested via antibiogram, however resistance genes were identified. E. faecium isolates showed phenotypic resistance to gentamicin, erythromycin, and ciprofloxacin. Conclusions: Antimicrobial profiles harmful to health were demonstrated in bacterial pathogens isolated from the external environment of hospitals.

Genomic Evidence for Rare Hybridization and Large Demographic Changes in the Evolutionary Histories of Four North American Dove Species.

Introductions and invasions provide opportunities for interaction and hybridization between colonists and closely related native species. We investigate this phenomenon using the mitochondrial DNA COI and 81,416 base-pairs of overlapping nuclear variation to examine the evolutionary histories and signatures of hybridization among introduced feral Rock Pigeon and Eurasian Collared-Dove and native White-winged and Mourning doves in southwestern North America. First, we report all four species to be highly divergent across loci (overall pair-wise species ΦST range = 0.17-0.70) and provide little evidence for gene flow at evolutionary timescales. Despite this, evidence from multiple population genetics analyses supports the presence of six putative contemporary late-stage hybrids among the 182 sampled individuals. These putative hybrids contain various ancestry combinations, but all involve the most populous species, the Mourning Dove. Next, we use a novel method to reconstruct demographic changes through time using partial genome sequence data. We identify recent, species-specific fluctuations in population size that are likely associated with changing environments since the Miocene and suggest that these fluctuations have influenced the genetic diversity of each dove species in ways that may impact their future persistence. Finally, we discuss the importance of using multiple marker types when attempting to infer complex evolutionary histories and propose important considerations when analyzing populations that were recently established or of domestic origins.

Breeding records of Leptotila rufaxilla (Aves: Columbidae) in southwestern Brazilian Amazon with notes on nesting in some regions of occurrence

We present new aspects of breeding biology of Gray-fronted Dove Leptotila rufaxilla, from five nests found between 2012 and 2014 in a lowland forest fragment in southwestern Brazil. The nests simple/platform shape were built at a mean height of 1.90 m above ground. The clutch size was two eggs white and elliptic, incubated for 15 days (based on three nests). We recorded predation in two nests still in incubation phase. Minimum hatch weight of nestlings was 10 g and young fledged with a mean mass of 56 g. The constant growth rate (K) of nestlings was 0.40 with a growth asymptote of 60.7 g. Daily survival rate, Mayfield and apparent nesting success in the incubation period was 90, 20 and 56%, respectively, while in the nestling period were all 100%. Our data and the contribution of citizen science showed that L. rufaxilla breeds over the year, mainly in the rainy season, both in southwestern Amazonia and in other regions of occurrence.

Presentamos nuevos aspectos de la biología reproductiva de la Yerutí Colorada Leptotila rufaxilla, de cinco nidos encontrados entre 2012 y 2014 en un fragmento de bosque de tierras bajas en el suroeste de Brasil. Los nidos con forma simple / plataforma se construyeron a una altura media de 1.90 m sobre el suelo. El tamaño de la puesta fue de dos huevos blancos y elípticos, incubados durante 15 días (basado en tres nidos). Registramos depredación en dos nidos aún en fase de incubación. El peso mínimo al nacer de los pichones fue de 10 g y los polluelos dejaron el nido con una masa media de 56 g. La tasa de crecimiento constante (K) de los pichones fue de 0.40 con una asíntota de crecimiento de 60.7 g. La tasa de supervivencia diaria, Mayfield y el éxito aparente de anidación en el período de incubación fue de 90, 20 y 56%, respectivamente, mientras que en el período de cría fueron todos de 100%. Nuestros datos y el aporte de la ciencia ciudadana mostraron que L. rufaxilla se reproduce durante el año, principalmente en la época de lluvias, tanto en el suroeste de la Amazonia como en otras regiones de ocurrencia.

The mitochondrial genome and phylogenetic characteristics of the Thick-billed Green-Pigeon, Treron curvirostra: the first sequence for the genus.

Members of the genus Treron (Columbidae) are widely distributed in southern Asia and the Indo-Malayan Region but their relationships are poorly understood. Better knowledge of the systematic status of this genus may help studies of historical biogeography and taxonomy. The complete mitochondrial genome of T. curvirostra was characterized, a first for the genus. It is 17,414 base pairs in length, containing two rRNAs, 22 tRNAs, 13 protein coding genes (PCGs), and one D-loop with a primary structure that is similar to that found in most members of Columbidae. Most PCGs start with the common ATG codon but are terminated by different codons. The highest value of the Ka/Ks ratio within 13 PCGs was found in ATP8 with 0.1937, suggesting that PCGs of the mitochondrial genome tend to be conservative in Columbidae. Moreover, the phylogenetic relationships within Columbidae, which was based on sequences of 13 PCGs, showed that (T. curvirostra + Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) were clustered in one clade, suggesting a potentially close relationship between Treron and Hemiphaga. However, the monophyly of the subfamilies of Columbidae recognized by the Interagency Taxonomic Information System could not be corroborated. Hence, the position of the genus Treron in the classification of Columbidae may have to be revised.

Eimeria ferreirai n. sp. (Chromista: Miozoa: Eimeriidae) from doves Leptotila spp. (Columbiformes: Columbidae) from Brazil.

The doves and pigeons constitute a taxonomic group (Columbiformes: Columbidae) of granivorous and frugivorous birds with a worldwide distribution. The current work aims to describe morphologically and molecularly a new protozoan from white-tipped doves Leptotila verreauxi Bonaparte, 1855 and grey-fronted doves Leptotila rufaxilla (Richard Bernard, 1792) in Southeastern Brazil. Eimeria ferreirai n. sp. has oocysts that are sub-spherical to ellipsoidal, 21.4 × 18.8 µm, with smooth, bilayered wall, ~1.6 µm thick. Micropyle present. Oocyst residuum absent, but one to two polar granules are present. Sporocysts are elongate ovoidal to boomerang-shaped, 13.4 × 6.9 µm. Stieda body triangular to lozengal. Sporocyst residuum is composed of granules of different sizes. Sporozoites are vermiform with refractile body and nucleus. Sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene and the subsequent phylogenetic molecular comparisons supported the description of the new species, since the maximum similarity was 90-95% with eimeriid species of Columbiformes, Anseriformes, Galliformes and Passeriformes. Thus, this is the first coccidian species reported from Leptotila spp. and the twentieth description of an eimerian from Columbiformes in the World.

Complete mitogenomic and phylogenetic characteristics of the speckled wood-pigeon (Columba hodgsonii).

The speckled wood-pigeon, Columba hodgsonii, is mainly distributed in Bhutan, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, and Thailand. Although there are several studies on birds in the family Columbidae, no study has focused on C. hodgsonii, a member of this family. Therefore, this study aimed to clarify the phylogenetic status of C. hodgsonii. The complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of C. hodgsonii was sequenced and characterized and compared with those of other Columba species. The C. hodgsonii mitogenome was found to be 17,477 bp in size and contained 13 PCGs, two rRNAs, 22 tRNAs, and one CR. Of the 37 genes encoded by the C. hodgsonii mitogenome, 28 were on the heavy strand and nine were on the light strand. Twelve PCGs were initiated by ATN codons and one PCG harbored an incomplete termination codon (T-). The base composition of C. hodgsonii PCGs was A = 29.44%, T = 24.37%, G = 12.43%, and C = 33.76%. For the whole mitogenome, including PCGs, rRNAs, tRNAs, and the control region, the AT-skew was positive, and the GC-skew was negative. Phylogenetic analysis based on the base sequences of 13 PCGs from 28 Columbidae species and one outgroup using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference indicated that C. hodgsonii belongs to the genus Columba and that the family Columbidae is monophyletic.

Diverse Trichomonas lineages in Australasian pigeons and doves support a columbid origin for the genus Trichomonas.

Trichomonas is a significant protist genus, and includes T. vaginalis, the most prevalent sexually transmitted non-viral infection of humans, and T. gallinae of rock doves (Columba livia), one of the earliest known avian pathogens. New Trichomonas genotypes, including T. vaginalis-like isolates, have been discovered in American columbid hosts, suggesting geographically widespread cryptic diversity of Trichomonas in pigeons and doves. We sampled 319 birds from 22 columbid species in Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and southern Africa and uncovered 15 novel lineages of Trichomonas, more than doubling the known diversity of this parasite genus and providing evidence for frequent host-switching that eventually gave rise to T. vaginalis in humans. We show that Trichomonas has a columbid origin and likely underwent Miocene expansion out of Australasia. Our chronological topology for Trichomonas is calibrated on the evolution of a host phenotypic trait associated with ecological entrapment of the most basal extant lineage of Trichomonas in Ptilinopus fruit-doves.