[High-cost medicines: the difficult balance between individual and collective rightsMedicamentos de alto custo: o difícil equilíbrio entre direitos individuais e coletivos]. / Medicamentos de alto costo: el difícil equilibrio entre los derechos individuales y los derechos colectivos.

Medicines are special goods that cover the health needs of the population. In recent decades, the pharmaceutical industry has changed its research and development strategy, shifting its focus from the exploration of medicines for chronic diseases affecting a large part of the population to the search for drugs for rare diseases that affect a small number of people.This lack of a mass consumer base is reflected in a selective offer of a few very high-cost products aimed at certain diseases, which hinders both patient access and financial coverage.This article reviews the issue of high-cost medicines, including its cultural, legal, political, economic, and health aspects. It emphasizes the differences between various medicines in terms of their efficacy in changing the natural course of diseases, their market price, the consequences of their cost for healthcare funders, and the cost-opportunity ratio of having to pay for them at the expense of other essential resources.Finally, the article reflects on the legitimate rights of each individual to claim access to high-cost medicines when they are considered essential to recover a person's health, and on how guaranteeing such coverage can affect the collective rights of the population. Concrete examples that illustrate this situation are provided.

Medicamentos são bens especiais que atendem às necessidades de saúde da população. Nas últimas décadas, a indústria farmacêutica mudou sua estratégia de pesquisa e desenvolvimento, deixando de explorar medicamentos para doenças crônicas que afetam grande parte da população e passando a buscar medicamentos para poucas pessoas com doenças raras.Esse número limitado de consumidores se reflete em uma oferta seletiva de poucos produtos de preço elevado para determinadas doenças, dificultando o acesso dos pacientes e a obtenção de cobertura dos agentes financiadores da saúde.Neste artigo, analisa-se a questão dos medicamentos de alto custo e incorpora-se ao debate o contexto sanitário, cultural, jurídico, político e econômico. São enfatizados os seguintes aspectos: diferenças entre os diferentes medicamentos em termos da eficácia em mudar o curso natural das doenças para as quais são indicados; determinação do preço pelo qual esses medicamentos são vendidos no mercado; consequências desse preço para os agentes financiadores da saúde; e a relação custo-oportunidade de ter de pagar por esses medicamentos em detrimento de outros recursos considerados essenciais.Por fim, reflete-se sobre os direitos legítimos de cada indivíduo de reivindicar acesso a medicamentos de alto custo, por considerá-los essenciais para recuperar a própria saúde, e como a garantia dessa cobertura pode afetar os direitos coletivos da população; também são fornecidos exemplos concretos que ilustram essa situação.

Evaluation of Potential Urologic Prescription Drug Savings With Mark Cuban Cost Plus Drug Company.

INTRODUCTION: Mark Cuban Cost Plus Drug Company (MCCPDC) launched in 2022 with a goal to decrease prescription drug costs. Thus far, research has focused on possible savings if Medicare purchased its annual volume of drugs at MCCPDC prices. The aim of this study is to analyze if MCCPDC can offer savings directly to urologic patients compared with other mail-order pharmacies, local pharmacies, and with patients using health insurance. METHODS: Twelve drugs used to treat urological diseases available on MCCPDC were analyzed. Pricing data of 30-tab and 90-tab prescriptions from MCCPDC, other mail-order pharmacies, and local in-person pharmacies near our zip code 40508 (Lexington, Kentucky) were compiled. To compare if MCCPDC could offer savings to patients using health insurance to fill their prescriptions, out-of-pocket drug costs for patients from the 2020 and 2021 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey and the 2021 Medicare Part D spending data were extracted. RESULTS: Greater savings at MCCPDC were found at 90-tab prescriptions, but overall variability in prices existed. When comparing without health insurance, 9 of 12 drugs at MCCPDC were cheaper at 90 tabs with solifenacin and tadalafil saving $20 and $12 per prescription. When considering patients using insurance, abiraterone, sildenafil, and tadalafil offered savings on out-of-pocket costs at 30- and 90-tab prescriptions. CONCLUSIONS: MCCPDC may offer cheaper prices for patients filling urologic medications, especially at 90-tab prescriptions. This study is the first to show patients could save money using MCCPDC and has implications for physician counseling when prescribing common urologic drugs.

Variabilidade de preços de aquisição de medicamentos do grupo 1B do Componente Especializado da Assistência Farmacêutica / Variability in Drug Procurement within Group 1B of the Pharmaceutical Specialized Scheme in Brazil

Resumo No Sistema Único de Saúde os medicamentos do grupo 1 do Componente Especializado da Assistência Farmacêutica (CEAF) são financiados pela União e adquiridos de forma centralizada (grupo 1A) ou por cada Unidade Federativa (UF) (grupo 1B). Diferentemente de outros países onde se negocia um preço fixo a ser praticado no sistema público, no Brasil as aquisições são realizadas por licitação, o que pode levar a diferentes preços. Para permitir a comparação de preços, foi pactuada a obrigatoriedade de registro das aquisições públicas no Banco de Preços em Saúde (BPS). O estudo teve como objetivo analisar a variabilidade dos preços de medicamentos do grupo 1B adquiridos pelas UF do Brasil em 2021. Foram obtidas as aquisições de medicamentos do grupo 1B realizadas pelas Secretarias de Estado das 27 UF por consulta ao BPS excluindo-se os medicamentos sem preço de ressarcimento estabelecido em dezembro/2021. Foi obtido do Sistema de Informações Ambulatoriais o ressarcimento para cada UF. Verificou-se grande variabilidade dos preços de aquisição para cada medicamento entre as UF e dentro da mesma UF. O estudo demonstrou potencial iniquidade de acesso ao CEAF, privilegiando com menores preços UF mais favorecidas (maior população e riqueza).

Abstract In the Brazilian Health System (SUS), drugs covered by the Specialized Pharmaceutical Scheme (CEAF) receive federal funding and can be procured either centrally (Group 1A) or by individual states (Federal Units - UF) (Group 1B). Unlike other countries where national procurement prices are negotiated centrally by the government, public procurement in Brazil follows a public auction procedure, potentially resulting in varying purchase prices. To facilitate price comparisons, it is a legal requirement to register public acquisitions in the Health Prices Registry (BPS). This study aimed to assess the variability in the procurement prices for Group 1B drugs across the 27 Brazilian states during 2021. Data on the acquisitions of Group 1B drugs by the 27 Health Secretariats were obtained from the BPS. Drugs with no reported reimbursement prices as of December 2021 were excluded from the analysis. The total reimbursement amount for each state was sourced from the SUS Ambulatory Information System. The findings revealed significant variability in drug procurement prices both across and within states. The study underscored a potential disparity in CEAF access, favoring wealthier states (those with larger populations and higher economic status) by securing lower drug prices.

Impacto económico de medicamentos de alto precio/costo en la seguridad social de Argentina. El caso del instituto de obra social para las Fuerzas Armadas y de Seguridad / Economic impact of high-price/cost medicines on social security in Argentina. The case of the Institute for the Armed and Security Forces

Resumen Introducción: En Argentina, los medicamentos de alto costo (MAC) generan una carga económica elevada que deben afrontar las instituciones sanitarias. Sin embargo, no existe a la fecha un estu dio en Argentina que indique la magnitud del real problema de los MAC para la Seguridad Social. El presente trabajo, explora cuál es su impacto económico para una de las principales Obras Sociales del país. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo con etapa analítica a partir de datos obtenidos en gerencia de prestaciones, área farmacia y área contable de la institución. Cada medicamento fue clasificado según recomendación de OMS (clasificación Anatómica-Terapéutica- Química-ATC). Los precios fueron consignados en tres valores: nominal al momento de adquisición, actualizado a pesos fin de 2021 utilizando el CER (coeficiente de estabilización de referencia), y en dólares (USD). Se evaluaron 105 324 dispensas de MAC, correspondientes a 258 011 unidades para 10 450 afiliados. Resultados: El gasto total anualizado fue 57 millones de dólares (USD), y por usuario 6220 USD. Solo 1.9% de los afiliados requirieron MAC, aunque el gasto fue del 21.9% de los ingresos (aportes + contribuciones). Los primeros 5 medicamentos que generaron el mayor gasto fueron enzalutamida, bevacizu mab, nivolumab, palbociclib, pembrolizumab. Las enfermedades oncológicas y reumatológicas representaron el 62.8% del gasto. Conclusión: A la luz de los resultados, se deduce que los MAC constituyen un riesgo potencial de desfinanciación del sistema de salud si son abordados de manera atomizada por cada subsector. Los MAC requieren de políticas globales de carácter nacional y/o regional.

Abstract Introduction: In Argentina, high-cost drugs (HCD) induce a high economic burden for all the health system sec tors. However, it does not exist in Argentina any data that indicates the real problem of HCD for Social Security. That is why, the present study explores the economic impact of the HCD for one of the main Institutions of the country. Methods: A descriptive study with an analytical stage was carried out based on data obtained from management, pharmacy and accounting area. Each drug was classified according to WHO recommendation (Anatomical-Therapeutic-Chemical-ATC classification). The prices were expressed in three ways: nominal value at the time of acquisition in local currency, updated using the CER (reference stabilization coefficient), and in US dollars. A total of 105 324 HCD dispensed were evaluated, which corresponded to 258 011 units destined to 10 450 patients. Results: Total annualized spend was US$57 million (US$6220 per patient). Only 1.9% of affiliates required HCD, although those expenses represented 21.9% of the institutions´ total income. The first 5 drugs associated to the highest expenditure were enzalutamide, bevacizumab, nivolumab, palbociclib, pembrolizumab. Oncological and rheumatological diseases represented 62.8% of the HCD costs. Conclusion: Considering the results obtained, it can be deduced that if the HCD problem is approached in a scattered way by each subsec tor, it will become a potential risk for health system defund. The HCD topic requires of global policies at national or even regional level.

[Economic impact of high-price/cost medicines on social security in Argentina. The case of the Institute for the Armed and Security Forces]. / Impacto económico de medicamentos de alto precio/costo en la Seguridad Social de Argentina. El caso del Instituto de Obra Social para las Fuerzas Armadas y de Seguridad.

INTRODUCTION: In Argentina, high-cost drugs (HCD) induce a high economic burden for all the health system sectors. However, it does not exist in Argentina any data that indicates the real problem of HCD for Social Security. That is why, the present study explores the economic impact of the HCD for one of the main Institutions of the country. METHODS: A descriptive study with an analytical stage was carried out based on data obtained from management, pharmacy and accounting area. Each drug was classified according to WHO recommendation (Anatomical-Therapeutic-Chemical-ATC classification). The prices were expressed in three ways: nominal value at the time of acquisition in local currency, updated using the CER (reference stabilization coefficient), and in US dollars. A total of 105 324 HCD dispensed were evaluated, which corresponded to 258 011 units destined to 10 450 patients. RESULTS: Total annualized spend was US$57 million (US$6220 per patient). Only 1.9% of affiliates required HCD, although those expenses represented 21.9% of the institutions' total income. The first 5 drugs associated to the highest expenditure were enzalutamide, bevacizumab, nivolumab, palbociclib, pembrolizumab. Oncological and rheumatological diseases represented 62.8% of the HCD costs. CONCLUSION: Considering the results obtained, it can be deduced that if the HCD problem is approached in a scattered way by each subsector, it will become a potential risk for health system defund. The HCD topic requires of global policies at national or even regional level.

Introducción: En Argentina, los medicamentos de alto costo (MAC) generan una carga económica elevada que deben afrontar las instituciones sanitarias. Sin embargo, no existe a la fecha un estudio en Argentina que indique la magnitud del real problema de los MAC para la Seguridad Social. El presente trabajo, explora cuál es su impacto económico para una de las principales Obras Sociales del país. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo con etapa analítica a partir de datos obtenidos en gerencia de prestaciones, área farmacia y área contable de la institución. Cada medicamento fue clasificado según recomendación de OMS (clasificación Anatómica-Terapéutica- Química-ATC). Los precios fueron consignados en tres valores: nominal al momento de adquisición, actualizado a pesos fin de 2021 utilizando el CER (coeficiente de estabilización de referencia), y en dólares (USD). Se evaluaron 105 324 dispensas de MAC, correspondientes a 258 011 unidades para 10 450 afiliados. Resultados: El gasto total anualizado fue 57 millones de dólares (USD), y por usuario 6220 USD. Solo 1.9% de los afiliados requirieron MAC, aunque el gasto fue del 21.9% de los ingresos (aportes + contribuciones). Los primeros 5 medicamentos que generaron el mayor gasto fueron enzalutamida, bevacizumab, nivolumab, palbociclib, pembrolizumab. Las enfermedades oncológicas y reumatológicas representaron el 62.8% del gasto. Conclusión: A la luz de los resultados, se deduce que los MAC constituyen un riesgo potencial de desfinanciación del sistema de salud si son abordados de manera atomizada por cada subsector. Los MAC requieren de políticas globales de carácter nacional y/o regional.

Application of the ASCO value framework to evaluate the clinical and economic value of enzalutamide and apalutamide in the early stages of prostate cancer in Colombia.

Introduction: Prostate cancer has increased in recent years, increasing the costs associated with its treatment. Second-generation oral antiandrogens have emerged as an attractive therapeutic option. Objective: To compare the health value provided by enzalutamide and apalutamide, by evaluating two stages of prostate cancer: non-metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (nmCRPC) and metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (mHSPC). Methods: To establish, through the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) value framework, a contrast between two technologies in two stages of prostate cancer. The monthly cost of the two technologies was calculated according to the current price regulation norm in Colombia. Results: Enzalutamide showed a higher net health benefit score compared to apalutamide for both nmCRPC (48.33 versus 33.46) and mHSPC (52.0 versus 40.75). The cost per net health benefit point for the nmCRPC stage was $214,723 Colombian Pesos (COP) ($54.84 USD) with enzalutamide compared to $291,925 COP ($74.56 USD) with apalutamide, and for the mHSPC stage was $199,692 COP ($51.00 USD) with enzalutamide and $239,701 COP ($61.22 USD) with apalutamide. Conclusion: After comparing enzalutamide versus apalutamide in the nmCRPC and mHSPC stages through the ASCO value framework, enzalutamide showed a more prominent net clinical benefit and a lower investment per point awarded.

Profile of judicialization in access to antineoplastic drugs and their costs: a cross-sectional, descriptive study based on a set of all lawsuits filed between 2016 and 2018 in a state in the Northeast Region of Brazil.

BACKGROUND: The judicialization of the acquisition of medication for healthcare is not restricted to Brazil but can also be found in other Latin American countries, despite the existence of a universal health system in the case of Brazil, the Unified Health System (known as the SUS). Right-to-medicines litigation has existed ever since the emergence of a high demand for treatment of Acquired Immuno-deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) but the current focus is on cancer. Pharmaceutical Assistance (PA) is the area within the SUS that is responsible for ensuring access to medication and the aim of this article is thus to draw up a profile of litigation related to PA in one economically significant state in the Northeast Region of Brazil, in terms of the following characteristics of lawsuits: the plaintiff filing the lawsuit; medical and health information; the cost of acquiring the requested medications; and the proportion accounted for by spending on antineoplastic drugs. METHODS: A cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted of lawsuits filed between 2016 and 2018 at the Litigation Center of the State of Pernambuco Department of Health. RESULTS: A total of 2,947 lawsuits containing at least one requested medication were analyzed. The majority of the plaintiffs were male (51.7%); 49.8% of the requests originated in the Unified Health System (SUS), and plaintiffs were primarily patients in the Metropolitan region of the State capital, Recife. The most frequent cancers involved were those classified by the ICD as C61, C71 and C50. The median general expense on medications for the actions was U$1,734.94. Considering antineoplastic drugs alone, the cost exceeded U$7,500 per lawsuit over the three years, given that the median unit price for antineoplastic drugs is approximately US$65 compared to US$4 for non-antineoplastic drugs. CONCLUSION: The present study is of relevance to the field of public health and examines how a profile of such healthcare litigation can be used as a tool for managing and improving decision-making in times of economic austerity.

Public procurement of antineoplastic agents used for treating breast cancer in Brazil between 2013 and 2019.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in Brazil and the country's public health care system is the main care provider. Timely treatment can increase the chance of cure, prevent metastasis and improve quality of life. Effective public procurement of antineoplastic agents can therefore improve access to drug therapy. This study investigates patterns in the procurement of selected antineoplastic agents used for treating breast cancer by public bodies and avoidable expenditure on these drugs between January 2013 and December 2019. METHODS: We selected antineoplastic agents used for adjuvant or preoperative chemotherapy listed in the 2018 Breast Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment Guidelines and included in category L of the WHO Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical classification system. We analyzed regular purchases of antineoplastic agents registered in the Integrated General Services Administration System (SIASG), considering purchased quantity, unit price, date of purchase and procuring entity. Prices were inflation-adjusted to July 2019 based on the National Consumer Price Index. RESULTS: A total of 10 antineoplastic agents were selected. Trastuzumab and tamoxifen accounted for the largest share of total spending and largest volume of purchases, respectively. The Ministry of Education was the largest purchaser in volume terms of all the drugs studied, except trastuzumab 440 mg, where the category "Other Institutions" accounted for most purchases, and vinorelbine 20 mg, where the Ministry of Health made most purchases. The category "Other Institutions" accounted for the largest share of total spending. Total avoidable expenditure was R$99,130,645. Prices paid for medicines and avoidable expenditure were highest in the Ministry of Defense. CONCLUSIONS: The differences observed in the performance of different categories of buyers as to amounts purchased and prices practiced for antineoplastic agents could be reduced by employing strategies to expand the centralization of purchases, resulting in expanded access to breast cancer medicines in the public sector.

Conventional Synthetic Disease-Modifying Anti-rheumatic Drugs for Psoriatic Arthritis: Findings and Implications From a Patient Centered Longitudinal Study in Brazil.

Background: Conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs are the first-line treatment to inhibit the progression of psoriatic arthritis. Despite their widespread clinical use, few studies have been conducted to compare these drugs for psoriatic arthritis. Methods: a longitudinal study was carried out based on a centered patient national database in Brazil. Market share of drugs, medication persistence, drug costs, and cost per response were evaluated. Results: a total of 1,999 individuals with psoriatic arthritis were included. Methotrexate was the most used drug (44.4%), followed by leflunomide (40.6%), ciclosporin (8.2%), and sulfasalazine (6.8%). Methotrexate and leflunomide had a greater market share than ciclosporin and sulfasalazine over years. Medication persistence was higher for leflunomide (58.9 and 28.2%), followed by methotrexate (51.6 and 25.4%) at six and 12 months, respectively. Leflunomide was deemed the most expensive drug, with an average annual cost of $317.25, followed by sulfasalazine ($106.47), ciclosporin ($97.64), and methotrexate ($40.23). Methotrexate was the drug being the lowest cost per response. Conclusion: Methotrexate had the best cost per response ratio, owing to its lower cost and a slightly lower proportion of persistent patients when compared to leflunomide. Leflunomide had a slightly higher medication persistence than methotrexate, but it was the most expensive drug.

Relationship between vigorous physical activity and health care costs among adolescents: ABCD Growth Study.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between physical activity and health care costs among adolescents is not yet clear in the literature. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the relationship between physical activity and annual health care costs among adolescents. METHODS: The present sample was composed of 85 adolescents of both sexes with ages ranging from 11 to 18 years (mean age 15.6 ± 2.1). Health care costs were self-reported every month for 12 months, and information on health care values was verified with local pharmacies, private health care plans, and the National Health Service. The time spent in different physical activity intensities was objectively measured by accelerometers. Confounding variables were: sex, age, somatic maturation, body fatness, blood pressure, and components of dyslipidemia and insulin resistance. Multivariate models were generated using generalized linear models with gamma distribution and a log-link function. RESULTS: The overall annual health care cost was US$ 733.60/ R$ 2,342.38 (medication: US$ 400.46 / R$ 1,278.66; primary and secondary care: US$ 333.14 / R$ 1,063.70). The time spent in vigorous physical activity (minutes/day) was negatively related to health care costs (r = -0.342 [95% CI: -0.537,-0.139]; ß = -0.06 cents (95% CI: -0.089, -0.031). CONCLUSION: Vigorous physical activity seems to be associated with lower health care costs among adolescents.

Caracterización de las solicitudes de importación de medicamentos vitales no disponibles años 2016 y 2017 en Colombia / Characterization of the import applications for unavailable vital medicines in 2016 and 2017 in Colombia

Resumen En este estudio se analizaron las solicitudes de importación de Medicamentos vitales no disponibles (MVND) presentadas al INVIMA y los registros de solicitudes de recobros presentados en la ADRES por MVND, en el periodo 2016-2017. De las 2321 solicitudes de importación de MVND, el 76% fueron autorizadas. Se identificaron 88 solicitantes, 73 subgrupos terapéuticos y 195 principios activos, así como 368 diagnósticos. El 66% de los pacientes registrados en las solicitudes de importación se encuentran vinculados al régimen contributivo, en menor proporción al régimen subsidiado y al régimen especial o excepcional. En solicitudes de recobros asociados a MVND por vía judicial, se observó que, el monto solicitado por recobro fue de USD 8.577.583, equivalentes a 38483 UPCs. Los resultados mostraron que la implementación del decreto 481 de 2004 ha sido útil para garantizar el acceso a medicamentos para enfermedades raras, aunque no es ajena a la inequidad estructural de acceso a servicios de salud y medicamentos del SGSSS y que generan impacto, no solo en la salud pública, si no en el presupuesto asignado, bien sea por el alto costo que implica su importación o por la falta de regulación de estos dentro del mercado nacional.

Abstract This study analyzed the import applications for unavailable vital medicines (MVND) submitted to INVIMA and the records of MVND reimbursement requests submitted to the ADRES in the 2016-2017 period. Approximately 76% of the 2,321 MVND import applications were authorized. Eighty-eight applicants, 73 therapeutic subgroups, 195 active ingredients, and 368 diagnoses were identified. Most of the patients registered in the import applications (66%) are linked to the contributory regime, to a lesser extent to the subsidized regime and the Special or exceptional regimes. The total value of the reimbursement requests related to MVND granted by lawsuits, was USD 8,577,583, equivalent to 38,483 UPCs. The results showed that the implementation of Decree N° 481/2004 has ensured access to medicines for rare diseases. However, it is not alien to the structural inequality of access to health services and medicines of the Colombian Health System, which impacts public health and the allocated budget, either because of the high cost of importing MVND or because of the lack of MVND regulation within the national market.

The quality of research on judicialization and its influence on public policies on access to medicines in Brazil: a systematic review / A qualidade das pesquisas sobre judicialização e sua influência nas políticas públicas de acesso aos medicamentos no Brasil: uma revisão sistemática

Abstract Patients without access to medicines often resort to the judicial system. However, no systematic review has discussed the quality of studies and the factors that may influence the access to medicines from judicialization. This study aimed to characterize the quality of research on access to judicialized medicines and their influence on public policies in Brazil. A search was conducted in the LILACS, PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and Web of Science databases using the terms "judicialization" and "medication". Two reviewers identified articles that met the inclusion criteria. Only studies written in English, Portuguese, or Spanish published from 1990 to 2018 were included. The study selection resulted in a final sample of 45 articles. The retrospective descriptive design was the most common methods, based on reports and lawsuits. A high level of heterogeneity among the studies hindered the comparison and generation of evidence capable of supporting judges' decisions based on technical-scientific criteria. This review showed that studies were heterogeneous and had low methodological quality. Moreover, they did not propose viable solutions for health managers and formulators to face the problem.

Resumo Pacientes sem acesso a medicamentos geralmente recorrem ao sistema judicial. No entanto, nenhuma revisão sistemática discutiu a qualidade dos estudos e os fatores que podem influenciar o acesso aos medicamentos pela judicialização. Este estudo teve como objetivo caracterizar a qualidade da pesquisa sobre acesso a medicamentos judicializados e sua influência nas políticas públicas no Brasil. Foi realizada uma pesquisa nas bases de dados LILACS, PubMed/Medline, Scopus e Web of Science usando os termos "judicialization" e "medication". Dois revisores identificaram artigos que atendiam aos critérios de inclusão. Apenas estudos escritos em inglês, português ou espanhol publicados de 1990 a 2018 foram incluídos. A seleção do estudo resultou em uma amostra final de 45 artigos. O desenho descritivo retrospectivo foi o método mais comum, com base em relatos e ações judiciais. Um alto nível de heterogeneidade entre os estudos impediu a comparação e a geração de evidências capazes de apoiar as decisões dos juízes com base em critérios técnico-científicos. Esta revisão mostrou que os estudos eram heterogêneos e apresentavam baixa qualidade metodológica. Além disso, não propuseram soluções viáveis ​​para gerentes e formuladores de saúde enfrentarem o problema.

Acesso a medicamentos e cooperação Sul-Sul: um estudo de caso de negociação conjunta de preços na América do Sul / Access to medicines and South-South cooperation: a case study on joint drug price negotiations in South America / Acceso a medicamentos y cooperación Sur-Sur: un estudio de caso de negociación conjunta de precios en Suramérica

Resumo: Este artigo tem como objetivo analisar a negociação conjunta de preços de medicamentos de alto custo, que iniciou em 2015 nos âmbitos do Mercado Comum do Sul (Mercosul) e da União de Nações Sul-Americanas (Unasul), com a participação da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde (OPAS). Apresenta-se como um estudo de caso, baseado em pesquisa documental e entrevistas em profundidade, que descreve a primeira etapa presencial do processo de negociação de preços conduzido pelo Comitê Ad Hoc de Negociação de Preços de Medicamentos de Alto Custo (CAHPM) do Mercosul. Tal processo resultou no estabelecimento de preços-teto na região para o darunavir e o sofosbuvir. No caso do darunavir, houve uma redução do preço global do medicamento, inclusive no preço do Fundo Global de Luta Contra aids, Tuberculose e Malária. Conclui-se que a negociação de preços foi bem-sucedida nos casos mencionados, e a participação do Fundo Estratégico da OPAS na compra dos medicamentos agilizou o processo de compra e a disponibilidade destes nos países.

Abstract: This article aims to analyze joint negotiation of prices on high-cost drugs, which began in 2015 in the frameworks of the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) and the Union of South American Nations (USAN), with the participation of the Pan-Americana Health Organization (PAHO). This is a case study based on document research and in-depth interviews, describing the first face-to-face stage in the price negotiations led by the Mercosur Ad Hoc Committee on Drug Price Negotiations. The process resulted in the establishment of price caps in South America for darunavir and sofosbuvir. In the case of darunavir, there was a reduction in the global price, including the price in the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria. In conclusion, price negotiation was successful in the above-mentioned cases, and participation by the PAHO Strategic Fund in the drug purchases streamlined their procurement and their availability in the countries.

Resumen: El objetivo de este artículo es analizar la negociación conjunta de precios de medicamentos de alto costo, que comenzó en 2015 en los ámbitos del Mercado Común del Sur (Mercosur) y Unión de Naciones Suramericanas (Unasur), con la participación de la Organización Panamericana de Salud (OPAS). Se presenta como un estudio de caso, basado en investigación documental y entrevistas en profundidad, que describe la primera etapa presencial del proceso de negociación de precios, llevado a cabo por el Comité Ad Hoc de Negociación de Precios de Medicamentos del Mercosur. Tal proceso resultó en el establecimiento de precios-techo en la región para el darunavir y el sofosbuvir. En el caso del darunavir, hubo una reducción del precio global del medicamento, incluso en el precio del Fondo Global de Lucha Contra el SIDA, Tuberculosis y Malaria. Se concluye que la negociación de precios fue muy exitosa en los casos mencionados, y la participación del Fondo Estratégico de la OPAS en la compra de los medicamentos agilizó el proceso de compra y la disponibilidad de los mismos en los países.

Drivers of federal spending in pharmaceuticals of the Specialized Component: measurement and analysis / Indutores do gasto federal em medicamentos do componente especializado: medição e análise

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVES: Quantify and analyze the contribution of the main drivers of federal spending in pharmaceuticals purchase from the Specialized Component of Pharmaceutical Care (CEAF) in the period from 2010 to 2019. METHODS: An analysis of the annual expenditure's decomposition of the Brazilian Ministry of Health (MS) in pharmaceuticals from group 1A of the CEAF was carried out in order to isolate the contribution of its main drivers, price, quantity and residual, which involves therapeutic choices. This contribution's quantification was made with the support of the RStudio software version 1.3.1056 and the IndexNumR statistical package. RESULTS: The main driver of increased expenditure between 2011 and 2018 was the quantity of overlapping pharmaceuticals, 55% and 34%. In turn, the main driver in 2013 and 2015 was the residual, 33.2% and 57.9%. However, the expenditure in 2019 decreased by 30.4% compared with 2010. There was a decrease in the prices of daily treatments throughout the period. Among the years in which there was a reduction in expenditure, the residual was the main driver of the decrease in 2012 (-19.6%) and 2019 (-11.9%), while prices had the greatest impact on the decrease in expenditure in 2014 (-12%). There was also a reduction in the quantity of overlapping pharmaceuticals in three consecutive years, being -11% in 2015, -4% in 2016 and -11% in 2017. Lastly, in 2019 the reduction was -4%. CONCLUSIONS: The contribution of drivers to MS expenditure in the CEAF's 1A group fluctuated between 2010 and 2019. However, the expenditure decrease in recent years was induced by the three main drivers: price, quantity and residual. The decrease in the quantity purchased may have reduced the availability of some pharmaceuticals in the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS).

RESUMO OBJETIVOS: Quantificar e analisar a contribuição dos indutores principais do gasto federal na aquisição de medicamentos do Componente Especializado da Assistência Farmacêutica (CEAF) no período de 2010 a 2019. MÉTODOS: Realizou-se análise de decomposição do gasto anual do Ministério da Saúde (MS) em medicamentos do grupo 1A do CEAF a fim de isolar a contribuição dos seus indutores principais, preço, quantidade e resíduo, que envolve as escolhas terapêuticas. A quantificação dessa contribuição foi feita com o suporte do software RStudio versão 1.3.1056 e do pacote estatístico IndexNumR. RESULTADOS: O principal indutor do aumento do gasto entre 2011 e 2018 foi a quantidade dos medicamentos sobrepostos, 55% e 34%. Por sua vez, o indutor principal em 2013 e 2015 foi o resíduo, 33,2% e 57,9%. Entretanto, o gasto em 2019 registrou queda de 30,4% em relação a 2010. Houve diminuição dos preços dos tratamentos diários em todo o período. Entre os anos em que houve redução do gasto, o resíduo foi o principal indutor da queda em 2012 (-19,6%) e 2019 (-11,9%), enquanto os preços tiveram maior impacto na diminuição do gasto em 2014 (-12%). Houve ainda redução da quantidade dos medicamentos sobrepostos em três anos consecutivos, sendo -11% em 2015, -4% em 2016 e -11% em 2017. Por fim, em 2019 a redução foi de -4%. CONCLUSÕES: A contribuição dos indutores para o gasto do MS no grupo 1A do CEAF oscilou entre 2010 e 2019. Entretanto, a queda do gasto em anos recentes foi induzida pelos três indutores principais: preço, quantidade e resíduo. A diminuição da quantidade adquirida pode ter reduzido a disponibilidade de alguns medicamentos no Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS).

Critérios de definição de preços de medicamentos no Brasil e em países selecionados: uma revisão comparada / Criteria for setting drug prices in Brazil and selected countries: a comparative review

Objetivos: Comparar os critérios de formação de preços de medicamentos no Brasil e em países selecionados, analisar o mecanismo de formação de preços de medicamentos no Brasil e analisar o mecanismo de formação de preços de medicamentos em países selecionados. Métodos: Foi realizada uma revisão narrativa da literatura por meio do levantamento de informações em bases de dados, em sites das agências nacionais e organismos internacionais e em literatura "cinzenta", a respeito dos sistemas de saúde e mecanismos de formação de preços de medicamentos no Brasil e nos países selecionados (Austrália, Canadá, Espanha, Estados Unidos, França, Grécia, Itália, Nova Zelândia e Portugal). Resultados: A maioria dos países pesquisados utiliza o referenciamento externo e interno de preços, realiza ajustes e correções de preços ao longo do tempo e faz estudos de avaliação econômica. O valor da terapia ou seu benefício para o paciente ou sistema de saúde é um fator importante tanto na determinação do preço como da incorporação no sistema de saúde. Conclusão: Este trabalho permitiu identificar as semelhanças entre as práticas recomendadas e implementadas internacionalmente e as realizadas no Brasil, bem como os problemas relacionados à definição de preços das novas terapias, além das lacunas no modelo regulatório atual

Objectives: To compare the criteria for setting prices of medicines in Brazil and in selected countries, to analyze the mechanism for setting prices of medicines in Brazil and to analyze the mechanism for setting prices of medicines in selected countries. Methods: A narrative review of the literature was carried out by collecting information in databases, on websites of national agencies and international organizations and in "gray" literature, regarding health systems and price formation mechanisms of medicines in Brazil and selected countries (Australia, Canada, Spain, United States, France, Greece, Italy, New Zealand and Portugal). Results: Most of the countries surveyed use external and internal price referencing, make price adjustments and corrections over time and carry out economic evaluation studies. The value of therapy or its benefit to the patient or health care system is an important factor in both pricing and incorporation into the health care system. Conclusion: This work allowed identify the similarities between the practices recommended and implemented internationally and those carried out in Brazil, as well as the problems related to the pricing of new therapies, in addition to the gaps in the current regulatory model

Estrategia de Estado para el tratamiento de la atrofia muscular espinal: un desafío del sistema de salud en Argentina / State strategy for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy: a challenge for the health system in Argentina / Estratégia de Estado para o tratamento da atrofia muscular espinhal: um desafio para o sistema de saúde da Argentina

Objetivo: analizar la implementación y comercialización de medicamentos de alto costo en el sistema de salud argentino, tomando como referencia el tratamiento médico de la enfermedad de atrofia muscular espinal y analizar la normativa aplicable, demonstrando el paralelismo legislativo con la República Federativa del Brasil. Metodología: se realizó una investigación descriptiva analítica identificando los criterios plasmados en las normas ó reglamentos para la implementación de una medicación de alto costo. Resultados: logramos obtener el marco regulatorio de la medicación denominada nusinersen en Argentina y la República Federativa del Brasil. Conclusión: con el avance de la tecnología, sus altos costos impactan directamente en la posibilidad de acceso, ante lo cual creemos que además de las herramientas de negociación interna de cada país, la cooperación internacional resulta una herramienta fundamental para transformar esta realidad en una oportunidad de acceso.

Objective: to analyze the implementation and commercialization of high-cost drugs in the Argentine health system, taking as a reference the medical treatment of spinal muscular atrophy disease and analyze the applicable regulations, demonstrating the legislative parallelism with the Federative Republic of Brazil. Methods: a descriptive analytical investigation was conducted to identify the criteria set out in the rules or regulations for the implementation of a high-cost medication. Results: we obtained the regulatory framework for the medication called nusinersen in Argentina and the Federative Republic of Brazil. Conclusion: with the advancement of technology, its high costs have a direct impact on the possibility of access, before which we believe that in addition to the internal negotiation tools of each country, international cooperation is a fundamental tool to transform this reality into an opportunity access.

Objetivo: analisar a implantação e comercialização de medicamentos de alto custo no sistema de saúde argentino, tomando como referência o tratamento médico da doença atrofia muscular espinhal; e analisar a regulamentação aplicável, demonstrando o paralelismo legislativo com a República Federativa do Brasil. Metodologia: foi realizada uma pesquisa descritiva analítica, identificando os critérios previstos nas normas ou regulamentos para a implantação de um medicamento de alto custo. Resultados: obtivemos o marco regulatório do medicamento denominado nusinersen na Argentina e na República Federativa do Brasil. Conclusão: os altos custos da tecnologia impactam diretamente no seu acesso. Acreditamos que, além dos instrumentos de negociação interna de cada país, a cooperação internacional é uma ferramenta fundamental para transformar essa realidade em oportunidade de acesso.

Precios de medicamentos esenciales para el manejo y tratamiento de la COVID-19 en establecimientos farmacéuticos peruanos públicos y privados / Prices of essential drugs for management and treatment of COVID-19 in public and private Peruvian pharmacies

RESUMEN Objetivo: comparar los precios de venta de medicamentos esenciales para el manejo y tratamiento de la COVID-19 en establecimientos farmacéuticos peruanos públicos y privados. Además, estimar el costo por persona del tratamiento farmacológico para casos leves y severos. Materiales y métodos: estudio transversal con información reportada por establecimientos farmacéuticos públicos y privados. El precio de los medicamentos se presenta en medianas y se compararon usando la prueba no paramétrica de Kruskal-Wallis. Además, se estimó el costo por persona y asequibilidad para el tratamiento de casos leves y severos. Resultados: medicamentos para casos leves como azitromicina, hidroxicloquina, ivermectina y paracetamol tienen medianas de precios entre S/ 0,04 (US$ 0,011) y S/ 23,81 (US$ 6,71) en establecimientos públicos, mientras que los mismos medicamentos en establecimientos privados fluctúan entre S/ 1,00 y S/ 36,00. En promedio, los precios de los medicamentos en el sector privado son 11 veces los precios en el sector público. Los costos de tratamiento por persona en establecimientos públicos son más asequibles que en los privados, especialmente para los medicamentos para casos más severos. Los esquemas de tratamiento para casos leves requieren la inversión de entre uno a cuatro días de salario mínimo. Mientras que los tratamientos de casos severos pueden requerir, hasta 64 días de salario mínimo en establecimientos privados. Conclusiones: el tratamiento farmacológico para COVID-19 supone un gasto importante para el sistema de salud público y para las familias a través de gastos de bolsillo. Urge diseñar e implementar medidas regulatorias para mejorar el acceso a medicamentos a precios asequibles.

ABSTRACT Objective: to compare the sale price of essential drugs used in the management and therapy of COVID-19 in public and private pharmacies in Peru. Also, to assess the cost per person of drug therapy for both mild and severe cases. Materials and methods: this is a cross-sectional study using data reported by public and private pharmacies in Peru. Drug prices are presented as median values and they were compared using the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test. Also, costs per person and drug accessibility for treating mild and moderate cases were estimated. Results: drugs used when treating mild cases of COVID-19, such as azythromycin, hydroxichloroquine, ivermectin, and paracetamol had median prices between S/ 0.04 (US$ 0.011) and S/ 23.81 (US$ 6.71) in public pharmacies, while the same compounds cost between S/ 1.00 (US$ 0.28) and S/ 36.00 (US$ 10.15) in private pharmacies. On average, drug prices in private pharmacies are 11 times higher compared to those in public pharmacies. Costs for (COVID-19) therapy in public pharmacies are more accessible compared to those found in private pharmacies, particularly for drugs used for more severely affected patients. Therapy regimens for mild cases require spending 1 to 4 days of the minimum daily wages, while therapy for severe cases (of COVID-19) may require up to 64 days of the minimum daily wages in private pharmacies. Conclusions: pharmacological treatment for COVID-19 represents an important expense for the public health system and for families through out-of-pocket expenses. It is urgent to design and implement regulatory measures aiming to improve the access to drug therapy (for Covid-19) in order to have drugs sold at accessible prices.

Gasto privado com medicamentos entre idosos e o comprometimento da renda familiar em município de médio porte no estado de São Paulo / Medicines' private costs among elderly and the impairment of family income in a medium-sized municipality in the state of São Paulo

RESUMO: Introdução: A aquisição de medicamentos responde por proporção importante dos gastos privados em saúde. O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar o gasto privado com a compra de medicamentos e o comprometimento da renda familiar por idosos. Métodos: Inquérito populacional realizado em Praia Grande, São Paulo, 2013. O gasto mensal e o comprometimento da renda familiar per capita com a compra de medicamentos foram calculados com base nas informações obtidas nas entrevistas. As variáveis foram descritas em frequências absolutas e relativas, e os testes de hipótese utilizados foram o χ2 de Pearson, o t de Student e a análise de variância (Anova), com nível de significância de 5%. Resultados: A prevalência de utilização de medicamentos foi de 61,2%, e o gasto médio mensal per capita, de R$ 34,59, sendo significativamente maior o comprometimento da renda para os indivíduos com maior escolaridade, sem doenças crônicas e beneficiários de planos de saúde. Conclusão: A prevalência de utilização de medicamentos foi baixa. O custo gerado pela aquisição de medicamentos é uma das formas pelas quais pode se manifestar a desigualdade na sociedade. A ampliação da provisão gratuita de medicamentos seria necessária para expandir o acesso e evitar gastos, sobretudo àqueles que possuem planos de saúde privados, mas que não conseguem arcar com as despesas de tratamento medicamentoso.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: The acquisition of medicines accounts for a significant proportion of private health expenditures. The objective of this study was to analyse the private spending with the purchase of medicines and the commitment of the family income, by the elderly. Methods: Population survey conducted in Praia Grande, São Paulo, Brazil. The monthly expenditure and the per capita family income commitment with the purchase of medicines were calculated from the information obtained in the interviews. The variables were described in absolute and relative frequencies and the hypothesis test was Pearson's χ2, Student's t and Anova, with a significance level of 5%. Results: The prevalence of drug use was 61.2%. The average monthly expenditure per capita was R$ 34.59, with significantly higher income impairment for individuals with higher levels of education, without chronic diseases and health plan beneficiaries. Conclusion: The prevalence of drug use was low. The cost generated by the purchase of medicines is one of the ways in which inequality can manifest in society. The expansion of free drug provision would be necessary to expand access and avoid spending, especially those who have private health plans but cannot afford drug treatment.

The case of eculizumab: litigation and purchases by the Brazilian Ministry of Health / O caso do eculizumabe: judicialização e compras pelo Ministério da Saúde

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVES This study examined the purchases of eculizumab, a high-cost monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of rare diseases by Brazilian federal agencies, in terms of purchased quantities, expenditures, and prices. METHODS Eculizumab purchases made between March 2007 and December 2018 were analyzed, using secondary data extracted from the Federal Government Purchasing System (SIASG in Portuguese). The following aspects were assessed: number of purchases, purchased quantities, number of daily doses defined per 1,000 inhabitants per year, annual expenditures, and prices. The prices were adjusted by the National Broad Consumer Price Index for December 2018. Linear regression was used for trend analysis. RESULTS All acquisitions by federal agencies were made by the Brazilian Ministry of Health. The purchases began in 2009 with tender waiver to comply with legal demand. There was an increasing trend in the number of purchases and quantities acquired over time. Two hundred and eighty-three purchases were made, totaling 116,792 units purchased, 28.2% of them in 2018. The adjusted total expenses summed more than R$ 2.44 billion. After market approval by the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency, the weighted average price fell approximately 35%, to values under the Medicines Market Chamber of Regulation established prices. CONCLUSION Eculizumab represented extremely significant expenditures for the Brazilian Ministry of Health during the period. All purchases were made to meet demands from lawsuits, outside the competitive environment. The market approval of eculizumab promoted an important price reduction. This study indicates the relevance of licensing and the need for permanent monitoring and auditing of drug purchases to meet legal demands.

RESUMO OBJETIVOS O estudo examinou as aquisições de eculizumabe, um anticorpo monoclonal de alto custo utilizado no tratamento de doenças raras, pelos órgãos federais brasileiros, em termos das quantidades compradas, gastos e preços. MÉTODOS Foram analisadas compras de eculizumabe realizadas entre março de 2007 e dezembro de 2018, por meio de dados secundários extraídos do sistema de compras do governo federal (Siasg). Foram examinados o número de compras, quantidades adquiridas, número de doses diárias definidas por 1.000 habitantes por ano, gastos anuais e preços praticados. Os preços foram corrigidos pelo índice nacional de preços ao consumidor amplo para dezembro de 2018. Regressão linear foi utilizada para análises de tendência. RESULTADOS Todas as aquisições por órgãos federais foram realizadas pelo Ministério da Saúde. As compras se iniciaram em 2009, sendo efetuadas por dispensa de licitação e para atendimento de demanda judicial. Houve tendência crescente no número de compras e quantidades adquiridas ao longo do tempo. Foram realizadas 283 compras, totalizando 116.792 unidades adquiridas, 28,2% compradas em 2018. Os gastos totais contratados corrigidos somaram mais de R$ 2,44 bilhões. Após a aprovação do registro pela Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, o preço médio ponderado caiu aproximadamente 35%, para valores abaixo dos preços estabelecidos pela Câmara de Regulação do Mercado de Medicamentos. CONCLUSÃO O eculizumabe representou gastos extremamente significativos para o Ministério da Saúde no período. Todas as compras foram feitas para atendimento de demandas judiciais, fora do ambiente competitivo. Seu registro promoveu queda importante nos preços praticados. O estudo aponta a relevância do registro sanitário e da necessidade de monitoramento e auditoria permanentes das compras de medicamentos para atendimento de demandas judiciais.