Análisis de factores maternos que afectan la lactancia materna exclusiva en Ecuador / Analysis of maternal factors affecting exclusive breastfeeding in Ecuador / Análise dos factores maternos que afectam o aleitamento materno exclusivo no Equador

La lactancia materna exclusiva (LME) ha sido considerada por varios organismos internacionales como la solución para combatir la desnutrición infantil, la cual es considerada como un problema de salud pública. Bajo este contexto, la presente investigación busca encontrar cuáles son los determinantes de la LME en el Ecuador, y mostrar cómo influye el nivel educativo de la madre sobre la duración de la lactancia materna exclusiva. Para cumplir dicho objetivo se emplea un modelo probabilístico obteniendo como resultado que el nivel de instrucción de la madre, la etnia, el quintil de ingresos, el género del recién del bebé y la edad de la madre juegan un papel importante sobre la duración de la lactancia materna en el Ecuador. En el caso del nivel de instrucción se encuentra que las mujeres con una educación superior tienen menos probabilidad de dar LME, por seis meses o más, que las madres sin un nivel de educación

Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) has been considered by several international organizations as the solution to combat child malnutrition, which is considered a public health problem. In this context, the present research seeks to find the determinants of EBF in Ecuador, and to show how the mother's educational level influences the duration of exclusive breastfeeding. In order to fulfill this objective, a probabilistic model was used, obtaining as a result that the mother's level of education, ethnicity, income quintile, gender of the newborn and the mother's age play an important role in the duration of breastfeeding in Ecuador. In the case of educational level, it is found that women with higher education are less likely to breastfeed for six months or more than mothers with no education.

Análisis de Factores Maternos que Afectan la Lactancia Materna Exclusiva en Ecuador

La lactancia materna exclusiva (LME) ha sido considerada por varios organismos internacionales como la solución para combatir la desnutrición infantil, la cual es considerada como un problema de salud pública. Bajo este contexto, la presente investigación busca encontrar cuáles son los determinantes de la LME en el Ecuador, y mostrar cómo influye el nivel educativo de la madre sobre la duración de la lactancia materna exclusiva. Para cumplir dicho objetivo se emplea un modelo probabilístico obteniendo como resultado que el nivel de instrucción de la madre, la etnia, el quintil de ingresos, el género del recién del bebé y la edad de la madre juegan un papel importante sobre la duración de la lactancia materna en el Ecuador. En el caso del nivel de instrucción se encuentra que las mujeres con una educación superior tienen menos probabilidad de dar LME, por seis meses o más, que las madres sin un nivel de educación.

Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) has been considered by several international organizations as the solution to combat child malnutrition, which is considered a public health problem. In this context, the present research seeks to find the determinants of EBF in Ecuador, and to show how the mother's educational level influences the duration of exclusive breastfeeding. In order to fulfill this objective, a probabilistic model was used, obtaining as a result that the mother's level of education, ethnicity, income quintile, gender of the newborn and the mother's age play an important role in the duration of breastfeeding in Ecuador. In the case of educational level, it is found that women with higher education are less likely to breastfeed for six months or more than mothers with no education.

O aleitamento materno exclusivo (AME) tem sido considerado por várias organizações internacionais como a solução para combater a desnutrição infantil, que é considerada um problema de saúde pública. Neste contexto, esta investigação tem como objetivo encontrar os determinantes do AME no Equador, e mostrar como o nível educacional da mãe influencia a duração do aleitamento materno exclusivo. Para cumprir este objetivo, é utilizado um modelo probabilístico, com o resultado de que o nível de educação da mãe, a etnia, o quintil de rendimentos, o sexo do recém-nascido e a idade da mãe desempenham um papel importante na duração do aleitamento materno no Equador. No caso do nível de educação, verifica-se que as mulheres com educação superior têm menos probabilidades de amamentar durante seis meses ou mais do que as mães sem educação.

The impact of education level and socioeconomic status on the association between depressive symptoms and memory in an older population in Latin America: An exploratory analysis from the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSI-BRAZIL).

Purpose: The globally increasing older population raises concerns about age-related conditions, including cognitive impairment and depressive symptoms. In Latin America, nearly one-third of the population is affected by either of these conditions. However, data investigating the association between cognitive impairment and depressive symptoms, particularly in Brazil, are limited to small-scale studies that have not carefully examined the critical effects of variables such as education level and socioeconomic status on this relationship. We aimed at exploring this association in a representative population-based cohort. Methods: We used the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Aging (ELSI-BRAZIL) database to examine the relationship between depressive symptoms and cognitive impairment in Brazilian older adults, adjusted for potential confounders. Direct acyclic graphs and multivariable linear regression were used to build our model. Depressive symptoms were measured using a short version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Scale (CES D-8), and combined memory recall test as a surrogate of cognitive impairment. Results: The study included 8280 participants. Only education level was identified as a confounder for the relationship between memory loss and depressive symptoms. After adjusting for age, sex, and education level, there was strong evidence for a negative association between depressive symptoms and memory performance. For every 5-unit increase in the CES D-8 score, there was a reduction in memory capacity, translating to a loss of approximately one word in the combined words recall test (mean - 0.18, 95% CI -0.22; -0.15, P < 0.001). In addition, we found strong evidence for an interaction between socioeconomic status and depressive symptoms. Subjects belonging to medium socioeconomic status (SES) showed more pronounced memory decline, when compared to those with lower SES (mean - 0.28, 95% CI -0.42 to -0.14, P < 0.001). Conclusions: In adults aged over 50, after adjusting for sex, age, and educational level, a 5-unit increase in CES D-8 score is associated with loss of one point in the combined memory recall test. This association seems to be confounded by educational level and significantly modified by socioeconomic status.

Possible Risk Factors and Their Potential Associations with Combined Heavy Metal Exposures in Pregnant Women in the Republic of Suriname.

Background: The exposure of pregnant women to multiple environmental pollutants may be more disadvantageous to birth outcomes when compared to single-compound contaminations. Objective: This study investigated the mixed exposures to mercury, manganese, or lead in 380 pregnant Surinamese women. The factors that might be associated with the heavy metal exposures and the relative risk of the potential factors to cause the mixed exposures were explored. The influencing factors of exposures to mixed contaminants assessed were living in Suriname's rural regions, several parts of which are contaminated with heavy metals emitted from artisanal and small-scale gold mining and agricultural activities; the consumption of potentially contaminated foods; advanced maternal age; as well as a relatively low formal educational level and monthly household income. Methods: Descriptive statistics were used to calculate frequency distributions and χ2-contingency analyses to calculate associations and relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Findings: Blood levels of two or three of the heavy metals above public health limits were observed in 36% of the women. These women were more often residing in the rural regions, primarily consumed potentially contaminated food items, were 35 years or older, were lower educated, and more often had a lower household income. However, only living in the rural regions (RR = 1.48; 95% CI 1.23-1.77) and a low household income (RR = 1.38; 95% CI 1.15-1.66) significantly increased the risk of exposure exceeding levels of concern to two or three of the heavy metals (by 48% and 38%, respectively). Conclusion: More comprehensive pharmacological, ecological, and epidemiological studies about exposures to mixed heavy metal contaminations in pregnant women are warranted.

Características sociodemográficas, estado nutricional y salud oral en adultos masculinos de Yaguajay, Sancti Spíritus

Introducción: Las variables sociodemográficas y las patologías orales influyen en el estado nutricional. Objetivo: Determinar la relación entre características sociodemográficas, estado nutricional y salud oral. Métodos: En 2022 se realizó un estudio observacional descriptivo en 24 adultos masculinos de entre 31 y 62 años, de Yaguajay, Sancti Spíritus. Se aplicaron cuestionarios, mediciones antropométricas y exámenes orales. En SPSS versión 21 fueron resumidas las variables mediante frecuencias absolutas y relativas, el promedio y la desviación estándar, según correspondió. Para el estudio multivariado se utilizó el análisis de correlación canónica no lineal. Resultados: En la primera dimensión, las variables con saturaciones ≥ 0,5 que mostraron asociaciones fueron: grupo etario, nivel educacional, índice de masa corporal, dientes perdidos por caries y total de dientes perdidos. En la segunda dimensión, las variables que mostraron relación fueron: circunferencia de la cintura y dientes perdidos por caries. Adultos de 50 años o más presentaron pérdidas de 10 o más dientes. Se verificó la asociación entre la pérdida por caries de 10 o más dientes y la circunferencia de la cintura de 102 cm o más. El 71 % de los sujetos con nivel escolar de secundaria básica fue sobrepeso. El 55 y el 67 %, con nivel preuniversitario y universitario respectivamente, mostraron un índice de masa corporal aceptable. Conclusiones: Las asociaciones reportadas entre las variables socioeconómicas, nutricionales e intraorales señalan la importancia de una educación y promoción para la salud integradoras. La multidisciplinariedad y las estrategias comunes podrían ser más efectivas en la prevención de las enfermedades orales y nutricionales.

Introduction: Socio-demographic variables and oral pathologies influence nutritional status. Objective: To describe the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics, nutritional status, and oral health. Methods: In 2022, a descriptive observational study was conducted on 24 adult males, between 31 and 62 years old, from Yaguajay, Sancti Spíritus. Questionnaires, anthropometric measurements, and oral examinations were applied. In SPSS version21, the variables were summarized using absolute and relative frequencies, mean and standard deviations, as appropriate. Non-linear canonical correlation analysis was used for the multivariate analysis. Results: In the first dimension, the variables with saturations ≥0.5 that showed associations were: age group, educational level, body mass index, teeth lost due to caries and total teeth lost. In the second dimension, the variables that showed associations were: waist circumference and teeth lost due to caries. Adults aged 50 years or older presented losses of 10 or more teeth. The association between caries loss of 10 or more teeth and waist circumference of 102 cm or more was verified. 71% of the subjects with basic secondary school level were overweight. 55% and 67% of those with pre-university and university level respectively showed an acceptable body mass index. Conclusions: The associations reported between socioeconomic, nutritional and intraoral variables point to the importance of integrative health education and promotion. Multidisciplinary and common strategies could be more effective in the prevention of oral and nutritional diseases.

Comparación de las expectativas académicas de universitarios colombianos de primer año según el nivel de escolaridad de los padres

Introducción: Las expectativas académicas representan aquello que los estudiantes esperan alcanzar durante su formación y son un factor predictivo del desempeño académico y social. Estas expectativas académicas son moldeadas por los padres, luego la educación de estos es una variable importante en el desarrollo académico de los hijos. Si bien los progenitores proyectan sus anhelos sobre sus hijos, los motivan a tener altos niveles de aspiración y son los responsables de crear ambientes intelectualmente más estimulantes; el objetivo de este estudio fue identificar las diferencias en las expectativas académicas de una muestra de estudiantes, según el nivel de escolaridad de sus padres. Método: Esta investigación contó con la participación de 261 estudiantes colombianos universitarios quienes están cursando su primer año de pregrado, entre los 16 y 54 años (media=21,9). Para este estudio se utilizó el Cuestionario de percepciones académicas-expectativas (CPA-E; Deaño et al., 2015); se obtuvieron los puntajes de cada participante, junto con sus datos sociodemográficos que estipulaban el nivel de escolaridad de los padres, y se llevaron a cabo los análisis descriptivos de cada grupo, y los análisis de varianza unidireccional (ANOVA). Resultados: Las expectativas académicas de los estudiantes con ambos padres sin educación superior (media = 189.176), se encuentran por debajo de la media, siendo significativamente diferentes a los puntajes de expectativas académicas de individuos con uno (media = 202.050) o ambos padres con estudios superiores (media = 204.286, p < 0,001). Discusión: Se demuestra la relevancia y necesidad del acceso a la educación para la mayoría de la población colombiana, entendiendo que este es un factor influyente en las expectativas académicas de una persona, y que debe tenerse un acompañamiento diferencial a los estudiantes con padres sin formación profesional.

Introduction: Academic expectations represent what students hope to achieve during their training and are a predictor of academic and social performance. These academic expectations are shaped by the parents, therefore their education is an important variable in the academic development of the children. Although parents project their aspirations on their children, motivate them to have high levels of aspiration and are responsible for creating more intellectually stimulating environments, the objective of this study was to identify the differences in the academic expectations of a sample of students, according to the level of education of their parents. Method: This research had the participation of 261 Colombian university students who are studying their first year of undergraduate, between the ages of 16 and 54 (mean = 21,9). For this study, the Academic Perceptions-Expectations Questionnaire (CPA-E; Deaño et al., 2015), was used, the scores of each participant were obtained, together with their sociodemographic data stipulating the parents' level of education, and descriptive data and one-way variance (ANOVA) analyzes were done. Results: The academic expectations of students with both parents without higher education (mean= 189.176), are below the average, being significantly different from the academic expectations scores of individuals with one (mean= 202.050) or both parents with higher education (mean= 204.286, p < 0,001). Discussion: The relevance and need of access to education for most of the Colombian population is demonstrated, understanding that this is an influential factor in the academic expectations of a person, and that there must be differential support for students with parents without training professional.

Relación entre modelos operantes internos y nivel educacional materno, con la teoría de la mente en niños chilenos de 3 y 4 años: rol mediador del lenguaje mentalizante materno / Relationship between Internal Working Models and Maternal Educational Level, with the Theory of Mind of Chilean Children Aged 3 and 4: Mediating Role of Maternal Mentalizing Language

Resumen La teoría de la mente (ToM) es la capacidad de reconocer los propios estados mentales y predecir los de otros, habilidad fundamental en el desarrollo socioemocional/cognitivo en preescolares. El presente estudio buscó describir la ToM de niños chilenos de 3 y 4 años, analizar las diferencias en su desarrollo según la edad y el rol mediador del lenguaje mentalizante (LM) materno, considerando el sexo de los niños, los modelos operantes internos (MOI) y el nivel educacional materno. La muestra fueron 110 niños con sus madres. Se aplicó un cuestionario sociodemográfico, pruebas para evaluar la ToM, el LM y los MOI de las madres. Un 50.9% de los niños se ubicó en el quintil 1 de la ToM y ninguno logró llegar al quinto. Las habilidades de la ToM con un mayor nivel de logro diferenciaron entre pretender y realidad (60.0%) y la de diferenciar la perspectiva visual propia y de otro (50.9%). Un 59.1 % de los niños no logró inferir deseos a través de la mirada, un 83.6% no logró la habilidad de acceso al conocimiento, y un 100% no logró la falsa creencia. Los resultados muestran diferencias significativas entre niños de distintos rangos etarios en el desarrollo de la ToM, sugiriendo una creciente dificultad de adquisición de sus habilidades. Además, un mayor LM de las madres se relacionó con mayor desarrollo de la ToM en los niños, con un rol mediador en la influencia de los MOI y nivel educacional materno sobre la ToM.

Abstract The theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to recognize one's own mental states and infer them in others, fundamental in socio-emotional/cognitive development in preschoolers. This study sought to describe the ToM of 3- and 4-year-old Chilean children, to analyze the differences in their development according to age, and the mediating role of maternal mentalizing language (ML) considering the sex of the children, the internal working models (IWM) and maternal educational level. The sample considered 110 children with their mothers. A sociodemographic questionnaire, tests to evaluate the ToM, the ML and the IWM of the mothers were applied. 50.9% of the children were in quintile 1 of the ToM and none managed to reach the fifth. The ToM skills with a higher level of achievement were differentiating between pretending and reality (60.0%) and differentiating one's own visual perspective and another's (50.9%). 59.1 % of the children did not manage to infer wishes through the gaze, 83.6% did not achieve the ability to access knowledge, and 100% did not achieve the false belief. The results show significant differences between children of different age ranges in the development of ToM, suggesting a growing difficulty in acquiring their skills. In addition, a higher ML in mothers was related to a greater development of ToM in children, with a mediating role in the influence of IWM and maternal educational level on ToM.

Monitoring and control processes in mock witnesses in under-represented non-WEIRD samples with high or low educational level.

A popular model proposes that metamemory is based on two processes, monitoring and control. The first examines memories and evaluates their quality and the second uses that information to decide on the most appropriate course of action. Monitoring and control processes have been studied mostly with university students, which raises the question of how well do they work in groups of people from under-represented samples such as people with a low educational level. In this research, we tested the monitoring and control processes of three groups of participants from a non-WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic) country (Colombia). Two groups of adults (aged 30-55 years) living in urban or rural areas and with a low educational level and a group of Colombian university students watched a bank robbery video and answered cued recall questions. To measure monitoring ability, participants rated their confidence that they had produced the correct answer, and to measure control they indicated whether they preferred to report or withhold the response were they in a trial. Results showed that the three groups had a functional ability to monitor their memories and control their behaviour, and that university students had better memory and metamemory than the two low education groups. The results support the concept that the basic metamemory processes of monitoring and control are functional in different groups of individuals, but the differences between groups highlight the need to test the generalizability of cognitive processes and phenomena across individuals.

Validation of Picture Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test for Illiteracy in Lima, Peru.

Dementia in Latin America is a crucial public health problem. Identifying brief cognitive screening (BCS) tools for the primary care setting is crucial, particularly for illiterate individuals. We evaluated tool performance characteristics and validated the free and total recall sections of the Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test-Picture version (FCSRT-Picture) to discriminate between 63 patients with early Alzheimer's disease dementia (ADD), 60 amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and 64 cognitively healthy Peruvian individuals with illiteracy from an urban area. Clinical, functional, and cognitive assessments were performed. FCSRT-Picture performance was assessed using receiver operating characteristic curve analyses. The mean ± standard deviation scores were 7.7 ± 1.0 in ADD, 11.8 ± 1.6 in aMCI, and 29.5 ± 1.8 in controls. The FCSRT-Picture had better performance characteristics for distinguishing controls from aMCI compared with several other BCS tools, but similar characteristics between controls and early ADD. The FCSRT-Picture is a reliable BCS tool for illiteracy in Peru.

Differential fetal growth rates mediated by sociodemographic factors in Yucatan, Mexico: an epidemiological study.

BACKGROUND: Fetal growth restriction (FGR) may be related to ethnicity. Additionally, ethnic groups experience adverse socioeconomic circumstances that increase FGR risk. However, the dearth of evidence of the interaction between socioeconomic factors and FGR highlights the need for additional research. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the association between socioeconomic factors and FGR in Maya and non-Maya populations in Yucatan, Mexico. METHODS: A total of 21,320 singleton births in 2017 in Yucatan were analyzed. The student's t-test and the chi-square test were used to compare the means and proportions of maternal and perinatal variables between the FGR group and the birthweight appropriate for gestational age (AGA) group. Path analysis was performed to identify the direct and indirect effects of socioeconomic factors on FGR and mediators between predictors and FGR. RESULTS: The prevalence of FGR at birth was 9.06%; this rate was higher in the Maya population (12.4, 95% CI 11.3-13.5), without differences between socioeconomic levels. Path analysis revealed sociostructural variables (ethnicity and poverty) are reliable predictors of FGR at birth mediated by maternal education (ß = -.152, p < .001) and teenage pregnancy (ß = .065, p = .037). The proposal path model had a good fit index CFI = .968, TLI = .920, RMSEA = .046. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of FGR was higher among Maya women than non-Maya women The socioeconomic conditions associated with FGR at birth were ethnicity, poverty, maternal education, and teenage pregnancy. Maternal education and teenage pregnancy act as mediators between sociostructural variables and FGR at birth.

Socioeconomic status and access to multiple sclerosis treatment in Mexico.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurological autoimmune condition and the leading non-traumatic cause of neurological disability worldwide. Disease-modifying therapies (DMT) directly impact on the long-term prognosis of patients with MS preventing relapses and the associated disability progression. Here, we analyzed the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on DMT access in Mexican patients. METHODS: We evaluated the association between SES and DMT access using the MS registry from the National Institute of Neurology and Neurosurgery in Mexico City. We included 974 patients with MS (McDonald 2010 criteria). We categorized SES according to the 2018 Mexican Association of Market Research Agencies (AMAI) SES classification. We analyzed DMT type, MS phenotype, educational level, symptomatic onset to diagnosis, EDSS at arrival, as well as the progression index. Chi-squared and Wilcoxon tests were used, and multivariable analysis performed for DMT access. RESULTS: When comparing the lower versus higher levels of SES, a significant association was found on the percentage of patients with higher levels of disability (EDSS >6) at arrival, the proportion of patients not receiving any DMT and a higher proportion of secondary progressive MS (p=0.006, p<0.001and p=0.004, respectively). We also found that lower educational levels had a significance and inverse association with EDSS on first visit (p=0.019), symptomatic onset to diagnosis (p<0.001) and a higher disability status at arrival (EDSS >6, p=0.010). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that SES is an important factor determining not only prompt but overall access to highly effective DMT. Lower SES are associated with greater levels of disability at the first clinic visit and a higher proportion of patients not receiving DMT up to 12 months of follow-up.

Determinants of anterior tooth loss in Chilean adults: data from the Chilean National Health Survey 2016-2017.

OBJECTIVE: To describe prevalence of anterior tooth loss and its determinants among Chilean people aged over 15 years. METHODS: Cross-sectional study, using the sampling frame of the Chilean National Health Survey 2016-2017 (n=5473 participants). Multivariate logistic regressions were performed to obtain the prevalence and odds ratio (OR) for anterior tooth loss using a complex sampling method. We described anterior tooth loss affecting each jaw according to sex, age, educational level, urban/rural residence and having health insurance. RESULTS: The odds of anterior tooth loss were 7.11 (95%CI: 4.57 - 10.78) and 4.84 (95%CI: 3.02 - 7.72) times higher for low-educated subjects compared to those with more educational, for the upper and lower jaw respectively. Also, the odds of anterior tooth loss for the upper jaw was 1.34 (CI 95%: 1.07 - 1.66) times higher in women, whereas for the lower jaw, no significant differences by sex were found (p-value 0.14). Adults having only the National Health Fund B insurance (FONASA B) had odds of losing one or more anterior teeth 2.43 (CI 95%: 1.34 - 4.39) times higher in the upper jaw and 2.08 (CI 95%: 1.03 - 4.20) in the lower jaw compared with those having Health Insurance Institutions (ISAPREs). CONCLUSION: Our study showed for the first time that anterior tooth loss is a widespread condition in Chile, with marked inequities by sex, age, educational level, and geographical area. People in the public health insurance system have a higher odds of anterior tooth loss.

Corrigendum: Risks for Child Cognitive Development in Rural Contexts.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02735.].

Maternal Education and Academic Achievement in Schoolchildren: The Role of Cardiorespiratory Fitness.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship between maternal education, cardiorespiratory fitness, and academic achievement in schoolchildren, specifically whether the association between maternal education and academic achievement is mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness. STUDY DESIGN: This is a secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study including 478 Spanish schoolchildren aged 8-11 years. ANOVA was used to test differences in cardiorespiratory fitness by maternal education level. ANCOVA was used to test the differences in academic achievement by the educational level of mothers and the cardiorespiratory fitness of children, controlling for each other. A mediation analysis was used to test if the relationship between maternal education and academic achievement was explained by cardiorespiratory fitness. RESULTS: A higher level of maternal education was associated with a higher cardiorespiratory fitness level and academic achievement in children; moreover, the cardiorespiratory fitness level in children was associated with better academic achievement (P < .05). Finally, cardiorespiratory fitness acted as a partial mediator of the relationship between maternal education and academic achievement in boys (z = 1.81; P = .03) but not in girls (z = 0.86; P = .19), explaining 6.54% of this relationship for the total sample and 6.67% for boys. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that the benefits of maternal education on academic achievement are partially explained by the mediating role of cardiorespiratory fitness.

The "SuperAgers" construct in clinical practice: neuropsychological assessment of illiterate and educated elderly.

INTRODUCTION: The demographic transition is a global event intensified during the last decades that represents population aging. Thus, the studies directed to the elderly 80 years of age or more with preserved cognitive functions (named SuperAgers) emerges as a possible path to full comprehension of the health of those aging with acceptable levels of functionality and independency. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the cognitive performance of the elderly over 80 years old, associating the results to their educational level. METHOD: We evaluated 144 healthy elders with 80 years or more through the following cognitive tests Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG), Clock Drawing Test (CDT), and Verbal Fluency Test (VF) and compared the tests' scores with their educational level segmented in years of formal education, being the groups ILLITR (<1 year of schooling), 1TO4 (from 1 to 4 years of schooling), and 5MORE (>5 years of schooling). RESULTS: There was positive influence of educational level on the cognitive tests' score, which indicates higher cognitive reserve of the elderly with higher educational levels. CONCLUSION: The functionality and independence of the so-called SuperAgers is determined by the cognitive reserve acquired throughout life, mainly developed by the years of formal education.

[Decriminalization of abortion in Chile: a mixed method approach based on perception of abortion in the community population]. / Despenalización del aborto en Chile: una aproximación mixta desde la percepción del aborto en población comunitaria.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the variables and the axiological argumentations that configure the perception of abortion as a crime, in a sample of a city in southern Chile during the debate of law 21.030. METHOD: The design is quantitative, observational correlation cross-sectional followed by a qualitative approach. The quantitative sample of 289 members of the community of Temuco (Chile) answered a questionnaire about social categories, and their perception of the seriousness of 15 behaviours defined in Chile as crimes. For the qualitative phase, we carried out 12 semi-standardized interviews in the same community, subject to content analysis, incorporating some elements of grounded theory from the constructivist perspective. RESULTS: Regardless of sex, more than half of the study sample considers abortion to be between a serious and an extremely serious crime, despite its current decriminalization. Religious people, no matter what kind of religion, political conservatives and people of a lower educational level, perceive abortion as a serious crime. Frequency of participation in religious events has a mediating effect. The qualitative results establish t religious teaching as a very important argument to reject abortion, and that the perception of the severity of abortion as a crime is multidimensional. CONCLUSION: Religion and a conservative political vision affect the traditional constructions of gender and motherhood, and therefore, there is a marked tendency to reject abortion. These results emphasize the need to pay special attention to the acceptance of Law 21.030 on the voluntary termination of pregnancy in regions. This is important for effective application of the Law.

Creencias Irracionales en Estudiantes de Psicología de una Universidad Privada de Lima Metropolitana, según el Nivel de Estudios, Sexo y Lugar de Origen / Irrational Beliefs in Psychology Students of a Private University in Metropolitan Lima, an Analysis by Level of Studies, Sex, and Place of Origin

Resumen La presente investigación plantea que las creencias irracionales descritas por Albert Ellis son afirmaciones anti empíricas que causan un malestar emocional en quienes las poseen. Por ello se busca analizar la presencia de estas en estudiantes de psicología y su asociación con el nivel de estudios, sexo y lugar de origen. Fueron seleccionados 278 estudiantes de una universidad privada de Lima Metropolitana. Se utilizó el Registro de Opiniones de Ellis. Los resultados muestran que los estudiantes de psicología presentan la creencia 6 (se debe sentir miedo o ansiedad ante cualquier cosa desconocida o potencialmente peligrosa) de manera sumamente limitante, y las creencias 2 (uno debe ser indefectiblemente competente y casi perfecto en todo) y 8 (se necesita contar con algo más grande y fuerte que uno) de manera posiblemente limitante. Por otro lado, se encontró asociación con el nivel de estudios de las creencias 3 (ciertas personas son malas y deberían ser castigadas) y 8, donde, a mayor nivel de estudios, menos creencias. También se verifica asociación entre las creencias irracionales 1 (para un adulto es necesario tener el cariño y la aprobación de sus semejantes, familia y amigos), 3 y 10 (la felicidad aumenta con la inactividad) con sexo.

Abstract The research suggests that Albert Ellis irrational beliefs are antiempirical statements that cause emotional distress in people who possess them. In his theory A B C, argues that what we feel is not based on what happens around us, but on how we interpret that reality. Then, A would become the event that occurs, B the interpretation we make, and C the emotional and behavioral consequence. From this, Albert Ellis groups this idea generating ten final irrational beliefs and creates an instrument to measure them called Registro de Opiniones, which has 100 items, 10 for each of the beliefs. That is why I attempt to analyze the presence of irrational beliefs in psychology students and their correlation with educational level, sex and place of origin. I selected 282 university students getting their BA in psychology at a private university in Lima Metropolitana. The Albert Ellis Inventory, Registro de Opiniones, was applied after obtaining written informed consent. The hypothesis was that there is a correlation between the irrational beliefs of the students and their educational level, sex and place of origin. The results showed than psychology students that the sixth irrational belief is found in an (it should feel fear or anxiety to any unknown, uncertain or potentially dangerous thing) extremely limited way. Belief number 2 (must be unfailingly competent and almost perfect in everything I undertake) and 8 (you need to have something bigger and stronger than oneself) were found in a possibly limiting manner. Beliefs number 3 and 8 were found in a correlating manner with education level. Seeming that as higher level of education less strength of the belief. There was also an association between irrational beliefs 1 (for an adult is absolutely necessary to have the love and approval of their peers, family and friends), 3 and 10 (happiness increases with inactivity, passivity and leisure undefined) with sex. Finally, no association was found between irrational beliefs and place of origin.

Influence of age and education on the processing of clustering and switching in verbal fluency tasks.

Verbal fluency (VF) is a widely used tool in neuropsychological assessment. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate the influence of age and educational level on clustering and switching in three VF modalities: phonemic (PVF), semantic (SVF) and unconstrained (UVF). We evaluated type of cluster, mean cluster size, and quantity of clusters, intersections, and returns. A total of 260 healthy subjects were assessed. METHODS: Participants were divided into three age groups: young adults (18 to 39 years), middle-aged adults (40 to 59 years) and older adults (60 to 80 years) and into two groups of educational level: 1-8 years (low), 9 years or more (high). A two-way ANOVA analysis was conducted to analyze the effect of age and educational level and its interactions. A repeated measures ANOVA was performed to verify the performance during the task. RESULTS: A main effect of age was detected on the UVF and SVF scores for total switches, taxonomic clusters, and for the total semantic clusters on the SVF. There was a greater effect of educational level on total switches (UVF, PFV and SVF), taxonomic clusters (UVF and SVF), thematic clusters and total semantic cluster (UVF), phonemic and mixed clusters (PVF), mean cluster size (UVF and SVF) and intersections (SVF). Educational level had a greater effect on all three VF tasks.

Fluência verbal (FV) são ferramentas amplamente utilizadas na avaliação neuropsicológica. OBJETIVO: Nosso objetivo foi investigar a influência da idade e do nível de escolaridade no agrupamento e alternância em três modalidades de fluência verbal: fonêmica (FVF), semântica (FVS) e livre (FVL). MÉTODOS: Avaliamos o tipo, tamanho médio e quantidade de agrupamentos, alternâncias, intersecções e retornos. Foram divididos 260 indivíduos, em três grupos etários: jovens adultos (18 a 39 anos), adultos de idade intermediária (40 a 59 anos) e idosos (60 a 80 anos) e dois grupos de escolaridade 1-8 (baixa), 9 ou mais (alto). Uma análise ANOVA de dois fatores foi conduzida para analisar o efeito da idade e do nível educacional e suas interações, além de uma ANOVA de medidas repetidas para verificar o desempenho ao longo da tarefa. RESULTADOS: Encontrou-se efeito principal da idade nas tarefas de FVL e FVS nos seguintes escores: total de alternâncias, agrupamento taxonômicos e no total de agrupamentos semânticos na FVS. Houve um efeito principal do nível educacional no total de alternâncias (FVL, FVF e FVS), agrupamento taxonômicos (FVL e FVS), agrupamento temáticos e cluster semântico total (FVL), clusters fonêmicos e mistos (FVF), tamanho médio de cluster (FVL e FVS) e, finalmente, interseções (FVS). O nível educacional teve efeito maior nas três tarefas de FV.

Influence of age and education on the processing of clustering and switching in verbal fluency tasks / Influência da idade e da escolaridade nos processos de agrupamento e alternância em tarefas de fluência verbal

ABSTRACT Verbal fluency (VF) is a widely used tool in neuropsychological assessment. Objective: We aimed to investigate the influence of age and educational level on clustering and switching in three VF modalities: phonemic (PVF), semantic (SVF) and unconstrained (UVF). We evaluated type of cluster, mean cluster size, and quantity of clusters, intersections, and returns. A total of 260 healthy subjects were assessed. Methods: Participants were divided into three age groups: young adults (18 to 39 years), middle-aged adults (40 to 59 years) and older adults (60 to 80 years) and into two groups of educational level: 1-8 years (low), 9 years or more (high). A two-way ANOVA analysis was conducted to analyze the effect of age and educational level and its interactions. A repeated measures ANOVA was performed to verify the performance during the task. Results: A main effect of age was detected on the UVF and SVF scores for total switches, taxonomic clusters, and for the total semantic clusters on the SVF. There was a greater effect of educational level on total switches (UVF, PFV and SVF), taxonomic clusters (UVF and SVF), thematic clusters and total semantic cluster (UVF), phonemic and mixed clusters (PVF), mean cluster size (UVF and SVF) and intersections (SVF). Educational level had a greater effect on all three VF tasks.

RESUMO Fluência verbal (FV) são ferramentas amplamente utilizadas na avaliação neuropsicológica. Objetivo: Nosso objetivo foi investigar a influência da idade e do nível de escolaridade no agrupamento e alternância em três modalidades de fluência verbal: fonêmica (FVF), semântica (FVS) e livre (FVL). Métodos: Avaliamos o tipo, tamanho médio e quantidade de agrupamentos, alternâncias, intersecções e retornos. Foram divididos 260 indivíduos, em três grupos etários: jovens adultos (18 a 39 anos), adultos de idade intermediária (40 a 59 anos) e idosos (60 a 80 anos) e dois grupos de escolaridade 1-8 (baixa), 9 ou mais (alto). Uma análise ANOVA de dois fatores foi conduzida para analisar o efeito da idade e do nível educacional e suas interações, além de uma ANOVA de medidas repetidas para verificar o desempenho ao longo da tarefa. Resultados: Encontrou-se efeito principal da idade nas tarefas de FVL e FVS nos seguintes escores: total de alternâncias, agrupamento taxonômicos e no total de agrupamentos semânticos na FVS. Houve um efeito principal do nível educacional no total de alternâncias (FVL, FVF e FVS), agrupamento taxonômicos (FVL e FVS), agrupamento temáticos e cluster semântico total (FVL), clusters fonêmicos e mistos (FVF), tamanho médio de cluster (FVL e FVS) e, finalmente, interseções (FVS). O nível educacional teve efeito maior nas três tarefas de FV.

Evaluación cognitiva de niños: un estudio comparativo en San Luis, Argentina / Cognitive Evaluation of Children: a Comparative Study in San Luis, Argentina

Resumen En la provincia de San Luis (Argentina), se desarrollaron dos estudios con el propósito de conocer la incidencia de factores socioambientales en el desarrollo cognitivo de los niños. En la primera investigación se trabajó con una muestra de niños de alto riesgo entre 6 y 12 meses y, en la segunda, con una muestra de niños sanos de 6 a 9 años. Las evaluaciones cognitivas se llevaron a cabo mediante la aplicación de la Escala Argentina de Inteligencia Sensorio Motriz (EAIS) en la primera investigación y la versión argentina de la Escala de Inteligencia de Wechsler (WISC-IV) en la segunda. Los resultados reflejan que la variable ambiental nivel educativo materno incide en el rendimiento cognitivo alcanzado por los niños de 6 a 9 años, porque a medida en que aumenta la escolaridad materna mejoran los percentiles obtenidos por sus hijos. Sin embargo, no ocurre lo mismo en los bebés evaluados entre los 6 y los 12 meses de vida. Como conclusión, se remarca la importancia de los primeros años de vida en el crecimiento, la maduración y el desarrollo posterior del niño, así como el impacto que el medio familiar, cultural y social puede tener sobre los mismos. Además, se entiende al desarrollo cognitivo como un proceso multideterminado por aspectos subjetivos, ambientales, históricos-sociales y genéticos, entre otros.

Abstract Preliminary results are presented from two studies carried out in the province of San Luis, Argentina in which cognitive development in children was evaluated. A sample of high-risk children between 6 and 12 months of age was used in the first study, and in the second a sample of healthy children aged 6-9 years was used. Cognitive assessments were carried out by applying the Argentine Sensory-Motor Intelligence Scale (EAIS) in the first study and the Argentine version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC-IV) in the second study. The aim of this work is to discern what factors can affect cognitive development in children. The results reflect that the environmental variable, maternal educational level, affects the cognitive performance achieved by children from 6 to 9 years of age, since as maternal schooling increases the percentiles obtained by their children also rise. However, this was not the case in those infants evaluated between 6 and 12 months of age. We conclude about the importance of early life in growth, maturation and subsequent child development and the impact that family, cultural and social environments may have on them. Cognitive development is understood as a multi-determined process with subjective, environmental, historical and social and genetic aspects, among others.