KAT tales: Functions of Gcn5 and PCAF lysine acetyltransferases in SAGA and ATAC.

The Allis group identified Gcn5 as the first transcription-related lysine acetyltransferase in 1996, providing a molecular "missing link" between chromatin organization and gene regulation. This review will focus on functions subsequently identified for Gcn5 and the closely related PCAF protein, in the context of two major complexes, SAGA and ATAC, and how the study of these enzymes informs long standing questions regarding the importance of lysine acetylation.

Plasmodium falciparum cysteine protease Falcipain 3: A potential enzyme for proteolytic processing of histone acetyltransferase PfGCN5.

In spite of 150 years of studying malaria, the unique features of the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, still perplex researchers. One of the methods by which the parasite manages its gene expression is epigenetic regulation, the champion of which is PfGCN5, an essential enzyme responsible for acetylating histone proteins. PfGCN5 is a ∼170 kDa chromatin-remodeling enzyme that harbors the conserved bromodomain and acetyltransferase domain situated in its C-terminus domain. Although the PfGCN5 proteolytic processing is essential for its activity, the specific protease involved in this process still remains elusive. Identification of PfGCN5 interacting proteins through immunoprecipitation (IP) followed by LC-tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed the presence of food vacuolar proteins, such as the cysteine protease Falcipain 3 (FP3), in addition to the typical members of the PfGCN5 complex. The direct interaction between FP3 and PfGCN5 was further validated by in vitro pull-down assay as well as IP assay. Subsequently, use of cysteine protease inhibitor E64d led to the inhibition of protease-specific processing of PfGCN5 with concomitant enrichment and co-localization of PfGCN5 and FP3 around the food vacuole as evidenced by confocal microscopy as well as electron microscopy. Remarkably, the proteolytic cleavage of the nuclear protein PfGCN5 by food vacuolar protease FP3 is exceptional and atypical in eukaryotic organisms. Targeting the proteolytic processing of GCN5 and the associated protease FP3 could provide a novel approach for drug development aimed at addressing the growing resistance of parasites to current antimalarial drugs.

Mitochondrial GCN5L1 acts as a novel regulator for iron homeostasis to promote sorafenib sensitivity in hepatocellular carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Sorafenib resistance is becoming increasingly common and disadvantageous for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment. Ferroptosis is an iron dependent programmed cell death underlying the mechanism of sorafenib. Iron is crucial for synthesis of cofactors essential to mitochondrial enzymes and necessary for HCC proliferation, while mitochondrial iron overload and oxidative stress are associated with sorafenib induced ferroptosis. However, the crosstalk among iron homeostasis and sorafenib resistance is unclear. METHODS: We conducted bioinformatics analysis of sorafenib treated HCC datasets to analyze GCN5L1 and iron related gene expression with sorafenib resistance. GCN5L1 deleted HCC cell lines were generated by CRISPR technology. Sorafenib resistant HCC cell line was established to validate dataset analysis and evaluate the effect of potential target. RESULTS: We identified GCN5L1, a regulator of mitochondrial acetylation, as a modulator in sorafenib-induced ferroptosis via affecting mitochondrial iron homeostasis. GCN5L1 deficiency significantly increased sorafenib sensitivity in HCC cells by down-regulating mitochondrial iron transporters CISD1 expression to induce iron accumulation. Mitochondrial iron accumulation leads to an acceleration in cellular and lipid ROS. Sorafenib resistance is related to CISD1 overexpression to release mitochondrial iron and maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis. We combined CISD1 inhibitor NL-1 with sorafenib, which significantly enhanced sorafenib-induced ferroptosis by promoting mitochondrial iron accumulation and lipid peroxidation. The combination of NL-1 with sorafenib enhanced sorafenib efficacy in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that GCN5L1/CISD1 axis is crucial for sorafenib resistance and would be a potential therapeutic strategy for sorafenib resistant HCC.

Molecular Mechanism of Fusarium Fungus Inhibition by Phenazine-1-carboxamide.

Fusarium head blight caused by Fusarium graminearum is a devastating disease in wheat that seriously endangers food security and human health. Previous studies have found that the secondary metabolite phenazine-1-carboxamide produced by biocontrol bacteria inhibited F. graminearum by binding to and inhibiting the activity of histone acetyltransferase Gcn5 (FgGcn5). However, the detailed mechanism of this inhibition remains unknown. Our structural and biochemical studies revealed that phenazine-1-carboxamide (PCN) binds to the histone acetyltransferase (HAT) domain of FgGcn5 at its cosubstrate acetyl-CoA binding site, thus competitively inhibiting the histone acetylation function of the enzyme. Alanine substitution of the residues in the binding site shared by PCN and acetyl-CoA not only decreased the histone acetylation level of the enzyme but also dramatically impacted the development, mycotoxin synthesis, and virulence of the strain. Taken together, our study elucidated a competitive inhibition mechanism of Fusarium fungus by PCN and provided a structural template for designing more potent phenazine-based fungicides.

Gibberellin Signaling through RGA Suppresses GCN5 Effects on Arabidopsis Developmental Stages.

Histone acetyltransferases (HATs) modify the amino-terminal tails of the core histone proteins via acetylation, regulating chromatin structure and transcription. GENERAL CONTROL NON-DEREPRESSIBLE 5 (GCN5) is a HAT that specifically acetylates H3K14 residues. GCN5 has been associated with cell division and differentiation, meristem function, root, stem, foliar, and floral development, and plant environmental response. The flowers of gcn5 plants display a reduced stamen length and exhibit male sterility relative to the wild-type plants. We show that these effects may arise from gibberellin (GA)-signaling defects. The signaling pathway of bioactive GAs depends on the proteolysis of their repressors, DELLA proteins. The repressor GA (RGA) DELLA protein represses plant growth, inflorescence, and flower and seed development. Our molecular data indicate that GCN5 is required for the activation and H3K14 acetylation of genes involved in the late stages of GA biosynthesis and catabolism. We studied the genetic interaction of the RGA and GCN5; the RGA can partially suppress GCN5 action during the whole plant life cycle. The reduced elongation of the stamen filament of gcn5-6 mutants is reversed in the rga-t2;gcn5-6 double mutants. RGAs suppress the GCN5 effect on the gene expression and histone acetylation of GA catabolism and GA signaling. Interestingly, the RGA and RGL2 do not suppress ADA2b function, suggesting that ADA2b acts downstream of GA signaling and is distinct from GCN5 activity. In conclusion, we propose that the action of GCN5 on stamen elongation is partially mediated by RGA and GA signaling.

Loss of GCN5L1 exacerbates damage in alcoholic liver disease through ferroptosis activation.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Iron overload, oxidative stress and ferroptosis are associated with liver injury in alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD), however, the crosstalk among these regulatory pathways in ALD development is unclear. METHODS: ALD mouse model and general control of amino acid synthesis 5 like 1 (GCN5L1) liver knockout mice were generated to investigate the role of GCN5L1 in ALD development. Proteomic screening tests were performed to identify the key factors mediating GCN5L1 loss-induced ALD. RESULTS: Gene Expression Omnibus data set analysis indicates that GCN5L1 expression is negatively associated with ALD progression. GCN5L1 hepatic knockout mice develop severe liver injury and lipid accumulation when fed an alcohol diet. Screening tests identified that GCN5L1 targeted the mitochondrial iron transporter CISD1 to regulate mitochondrial iron homeostasis in ethanol-induced ferroptosis. GCN5L1-modulated CISD1 acetylation and activity were crucial for iron accumulation and ferroptosis in response to alcohol exposure. CONCLUSION: Pharmaceutical modulation of CISD1 activity is critical for cellular iron homeostasis and ethanol-induced ferroptosis. The GCN5L1/CISD1 axis is crucial for oxidative stress and ethanol-induced ferroptosis in ALD and is a promising avenue for novel therapeutic strategies.

IRF1 governs the expression of SMARCC1 via the GCN5-SETD2 axis and actively engages in the advancement of osteoarthritis.

Background: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease characterized by the breakdown of joint cartilage and underlying bone. Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that plays a critical role in the immune system and can be found in various tissues, including joints. Research on the relationship between OA and macrophages is essential to understand the mechanisms underlying the development and progression of OA. Objective: This study was performed to analyze the functions of the IRF1-GCN5-SETD2-SMARCC1 axis in osteoarthritis (OA) development. Methods: A single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) dataset, was subjected to a comprehensive analysis aiming to identify potential regulators implicated in the progression of osteoarthritis (OA). In order to investigate the role of IRF1 and SMARCC1, knockdown experiments were conducted in both OA-induced rats and interleukin (IL)-1ß-stimulated chondrocytes, followed by the assessment of OA-like symptoms, secretion of inflammatory cytokines, and polarization of macrophages. Furthermore, the study delved into the identification of aberrant epigenetic modifications and functional enzymes responsible for the regulation of SMARCC1 by IRF1. To evaluate the clinical significance of the factors under scrutiny, a cohort comprising 13 patients diagnosed with OA and 7 fracture patients without OA was included in the analysis. Results: IRF1 was found to exert regulatory control over the expression of SMARCC1, thus playing a significant role in the development of osteoarthritis (OA). The knockdown of either IRF1 or SMARCC1 disrupted the pro-inflammatory effects induced by IL-1ß in chondrocytes, leading to a mitigation of OA-like symptoms, including inflammatory infiltration, cartilage degradation, and tissue injury, in rat models. Additionally, this intervention resulted in a reduction in the predominance of M1 macrophages both in vitro and in vivo. Significant epigenetic modifications, such as abundant H3K27ac and H3K4me3 marks, were observed near the SMARCC1 promoter and 10 kb upstream region. These modifications were attributed to the recruitment of GCN5 and SETD2, which are functional enzymes responsible for these modifications. Remarkably, the overexpression of either GCN5 or SETD2 restored SMARCC1 expression in rat cartilages or chondrocytes, consequently exacerbating the OA-like symptoms. Conclusion: This research postulates that the transcriptional activity of SMARCC1 can be influenced by IRF1 through the recruitment of GCN5 and SETD2, consequently regulating the H3K27ac and H3K4me3 modifications in close proximity to the SMARCC1 promoter and 10 kb upstream region. These modifications, in turn, facilitate the M1 skewing of macrophages and contribute to the progression of osteoarthritis (OA). The Translational Potential of this Article: The study demonstrated that the regulation of SMARCC1 by IRF1 plays a crucial role in the development of OA. Knocking down either IRF1 or SMARCC1 disrupted the pro-inflammatory effects induced by IL-1ß in chondrocytes, leading to a mitigation of OA-like symptoms in rat models. These symptoms included inflammatory infiltration, cartilage degradation, and tissue injury. These findings suggest that targeting the IRF1-SMARCC1 regulatory axis, as well as the associated epigenetic modifications, could potentially be a novel approach in the development of OA therapies, offering new opportunities for disease management and improved patient outcomes.

The balance between nuclear import and export of NLRC5 regulates MHC class I transactivation.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules play an essential role in regulating the adaptive immune system by presenting antigens to CD8 T cells. CITA (MHC class I transactivator), also known as NLRC5 (NLR family, CARD domain-containing 5), regulates the expression of MHC class I and essential components involved in the MHC class I antigen presentation pathway. While the critical role of the nuclear distribution of NLRC5 in its transactivation activity has been known, the regulatory mechanism to determine the nuclear localization of NLRC5 remains poorly understood. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of all domains in NLRC5 revealed that the regulatory mechanisms for nuclear import and export of NLRC5 coexist and counterbalance each other. Moreover, GCN5 (general control non-repressed 5 protein), a member of HATs (histone acetyltransferases), was found to be a key player to retain NLRC5 in the nucleus, thereby contributing to the expression of MHC class I. Therefore, the balance between import and export of NLRC5 has emerged as an additional regulatory mechanism for MHC class I transactivation, which would be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of cancer and virus-infected diseases.

[Identification of banana ADA1 gene family members and their expression profiles under biotic and abiotic stresses].

The Spt-Ada-Gcn5-acetyltransferase (SAGA) is an ancillary transcription initiation complex which is highly conserved. The ADA1 (alteration/deficiency in activation 1, also called histone H2A functional interactor 1, HFI1) is a subunit in the core module of the SAGA protein complex. ADA1 plays an important role in plant growth and development as well as stress resistance. In this paper, we performed genome-wide identification of banana ADA1 gene family members based on banana genomic data, and analyzed the basic physicochemical properties, evolutionary relationships, selection pressure, promoter cis-acting elements, and its expression profiles under biotic and abiotic stresses. The results showed that there were 10, 6, and 7 family members in Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana and Musa itinerans. The members were all unstable and hydrophilic proteins, and only contained the conservative SAGA-Tad1 domain. Both MaADA1 and MbADA1 have interactive relationship with Sgf11 (SAGA-associated factor 11) of core module in SAGA. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that banana ADA1 gene family members could be divided into 3 classes. The evolution of ADA1 gene family members was mostly influenced by purifying selection. There were large differences among the gene structure of banana ADA1 gene family members. ADA1 gene family members contained plenty of hormonal elements. MaADA1-1 may play a prominent role in the resistance of banana to cold stress, while MaADA1 may respond to the Panama disease of banana. In conclusion, this study suggested ADA1 gene family members are highly conserved in banana, and may respond to biotic and abiotic stress.

GCN5L1-mediated acetylation prevents Rictor degradation in cardiac cells after hypoxic stress.

Cardiomyocyte apoptosis and cardiac fibrosis are the leading causes of mortality in patients with ischemic heart disease. As such, these processes represent potential therapeutic targets to treat heart failure resulting from ischemic insult. We previously demonstrated that the mitochondrial acetyltransferase protein GCN5L1 regulates cardiomyocyte cytoprotective signaling in ischemia-reperfusion injury in vivo and hypoxia-reoxygenation injury in vitro. The current study investigated the mechanism underlying GCN5L1-mediated regulation of the Akt/mTORC2 cardioprotective signaling pathway. Rictor protein levels in cardiac tissues from human ischemic heart disease patients were significantly decreased relative to non-ischemic controls. Rictor protein levels were similarly decreased in cardiac AC16 cells following hypoxic stress, while mRNA levels remained unchanged. The reduction in Rictor protein levels after hypoxia was enhanced by the knockdown of GCN5L1, and was blocked by GCN5L1 overexpression. These findings correlated with changes in Rictor lysine acetylation, which were mediated by GCN5L1 acetyltransferase activity. Rictor degradation was regulated by proteasomal activity, which was antagonized by increased Rictor acetylation. Finally, we found that GCN5L1 knockdown restricted cytoprotective Akt signaling, in conjunction with decreased mTOR abundance and activity. In summary, these studies suggest that GCN5L1 promotes cardioprotective Akt/mTORC2 signaling by maintaining Rictor protein levels through enhanced lysine acetylation.

Identification of banana ADA1 gene family members and their expression profiles under biotic and abiotic stresses / 生物工程学报

The Spt-Ada-Gcn5-acetyltransferase (SAGA) is an ancillary transcription initiation complex which is highly conserved. The ADA1 (alteration/deficiency in activation 1, also called histone H2A functional interactor 1, HFI1) is a subunit in the core module of the SAGA protein complex. ADA1 plays an important role in plant growth and development as well as stress resistance. In this paper, we performed genome-wide identification of banana ADA1 gene family members based on banana genomic data, and analyzed the basic physicochemical properties, evolutionary relationships, selection pressure, promoter cis-acting elements, and its expression profiles under biotic and abiotic stresses. The results showed that there were 10, 6, and 7 family members in Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana and Musa itinerans. The members were all unstable and hydrophilic proteins, and only contained the conservative SAGA-Tad1 domain. Both MaADA1 and MbADA1 have interactive relationship with Sgf11 (SAGA-associated factor 11) of core module in SAGA. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that banana ADA1 gene family members could be divided into 3 classes. The evolution of ADA1 gene family members was mostly influenced by purifying selection. There were large differences among the gene structure of banana ADA1 gene family members. ADA1 gene family members contained plenty of hormonal elements. MaADA1-1 may play a prominent role in the resistance of banana to cold stress, while MaADA1 may respond to the Panama disease of banana. In conclusion, this study suggested ADA1 gene family members are highly conserved in banana, and may respond to biotic and abiotic stress.

Increased histone acetylation is the signature of repressed state on the genes transcribed by RNA polymerase III.

Several covalent modifications are found associated with the transcriptionally active chromatin regions constituted by the genes transcribed by RNA polymerase (pol) II. Pol III-transcribed genes code for the small, stable RNA species, which participate in many cellular processes, essential for survival. Pol III transcription is repressed under most of the stress conditions by its negative regulator Maf1. We found that most of the histone acetylations increase with starvation-induced repression on several genes transcribed by the yeast pol III. On one of these genes, SNR6 (coding for the U6snRNA), a strongly positioned nucleosome in the gene upstream region plays regulatory role under repression. On this nucleosome, the changes in H3K9 and H3K14 acetylations show different dynamics. During repression, acetylation levels on H3K9 show steady increase whereas H3K14 acetylation increases with a peak at 40 min after which levels reduce. Both the levels settle by 2 hr to a level higher than the active state, which revert to normal levels with nutrient repletion. The increase in H3 acetylations is seen in the mutants reported to show reduced SNR6 transcription but not in the maf1Δ cells. This increase on a regulatory nucleosome may be part of the signaling mechanisms, which prepare cells for the stress-related quick repression as well as reactivation. The contrasting association of the histone acetylations with pol II and pol III transcription may be an important consideration to make in research studies focused on drug developments targeting histone modifications.

GCN5L1 regulates pulmonary surfactant production by modulating lamellar body biogenesis and trafficking in mouse alveolar epithelial cells.

BACKGROUND: The pulmonary surfactant that lines the air-liquid surface within alveoli is a protein-lipid mixture essential for gas exchange. Surfactant lipids and proteins are synthesized and stored in the lamellar body (LB) before being secreted from alveolar type II (AT2) cells. The molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate these processes are incompletely understood. We previously identified an essential role of general control of amino acid synthesis 5 like 1 (GCN5L1) and the biogenesis of lysosome-related organelle complex 1 subunit 1 (BLOS1) in surfactant system development in zebrafish. Here, we explored the role of GCN5L1 in pulmonary surfactant regulation. METHOD: GCN5L1 knockout cell lines were generated with the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Cell viability was analyzed by MTT assay. Released surfactant proteins were measured by ELISA. Released surfactant lipids were measured based on coupled enzymatic reactions. Gene overexpression was mediated through lentivirus. The RNA levels were detected through RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) and quantitative reverse transcription (qRT)- polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The protein levels were detected through western blotting. The cellular localization was analyzed by immunofluorescence. Morphology of the lamellar body was analyzed through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Lysotracker staining, and BODIPY phosphatidylcholine labeling. RESULTS: Knocking out GCN5L1 in MLE-12 significantly decreased the release of surfactant proteins and lipids. We detected the downregulation of some surfactant-related genes and misregulation of the ROS-Erk-Foxo1-Cebpα axis in mutant cells. Modulating the activity of the axis or reconstructing the mitochondrial expression of GCN5L1 could partially restore the expression of these surfactant-related genes. We further showed that MLE-12 cells contained many LB-like organelles that were lipid enriched and positive for multiple LB markers. These organelles were smaller in size and accumulated in the absence of GCN5L1, indicating both biogenesis and trafficking defects. Accumulated endogenous surfactant protein (SP)-B or exogenously expressed SP-B/SP-C in adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporterA3 (ABCA3)-positive organelles was detected in mutant cells. GCN5L1 localized to the mitochondria and LBs. Reconstruction of mitochondrial GCN5L1 expression rescued the organelle morphology but failed to restore the trafficking defect and surfactant release, indicating specific roles associated with different subcellular localizations. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, our study identified GCN5L1 as a new regulator of pulmonary surfactant that plays a role in the biogenesis and positioning/trafficking of surfactant-containing LBs.

GCN5L1-mediated acetylation prevents Rictor degradation in cardiac cells after hypoxic stress.

Cardiomyocyte apoptosis and cardiac fibrosis are the leading causes of mortality in patients with ischemic heart disease. As such, these processes represent potential therapeutic targets to treat heart failure resulting from ischemic insult. We previously demonstrated that the mitochondrial acetyltransferase protein GCN5L1 regulates cardiomyocyte cytoprotective signaling in ischemia-reperfusion injury in vivo and hypoxia-reoxygenation injury in vitro. The current study investigated the mechanism underlying GCN5L1-mediated regulation of the Akt/mTORC2 cardioprotective signaling pathway. Rictor protein levels in cardiac tissues from human ischemic heart disease patients were significantly decreased relative to non-ischemic controls. Rictor protein levels were similarly decreased in cardiac AC16 cells following hypoxic stress, while mRNA levels remained unchanged. The reduction in Rictor protein levels after hypoxia was enhanced by the knockdown of GCN5L1, and was blocked by GCN5L1 overexpression. These findings correlated with changes in Rictor lysine acetylation, which were mediated by GCN5L1 acetyltransferase activity. Rictor degradation was regulated by proteasomal activity, which was antagonized by increased Rictor acetylation. Finally, we found that GCN5L1 knockdown restricted cytoprotective Akt signaling, in conjunction with decreased mTOR abundance and activity. In summary, these studies suggest that GCN5L1 promotes cardioprotective Akt/mTORC2 signaling by maintaining Rictor protein levels through enhanced lysine acetylation.

Histone acetyltransferase Gcn5-mediated histone H3 acetylation facilitates cryptococcal morphogenesis and sexual reproduction.

IMPORTANCE: Eukaryotic gene transcription is typically regulated by a series of histone modifications, which play a crucial role in adapting to complex environmental stresses. In the ubiquitous human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, sexual life cycle is a continuous intracellular differentiation process that strictly occurs in response to mating stimulation. Despite the comprehensive identification of the regulatory factors and genetic pathways involved in its sexual cycle, understanding of the epigenetic modifications involved in this process remains quite limited. In this research, we found that histone acetyltransferase Gcn5-mediated histone H3 acetylation plays a crucial role in completing the cryptococcal sexual cycle, including yeast-hyphae morphogenesis and the subsequent sexual reproduction. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Gcn5 participates in this process primarily through regulating the key morphogenesis regulator Znf2 and its targets. This study thus provided a comprehensive understanding of how histone acetylation modification impacts sexual life cycle in a high-risk human pathogenic fungus.

Gcn5- and Bre1-mediated Set2 degradation promotes chronological aging of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Loss of transcription-coupled histone H3 lysine 36 trimethylation (H3K36me3) contributes to shorter lifespans in eukaryotes. However, the molecular mechanism of the decline of H3K36me3 during aging remains poorly understood. Here, we report that the degradation of the methyltransferase Set2 is the cause of decreased H3K36me3 levels during chronological aging in budding yeast. We show that Set2 protein degradation during cellular senescence and chronological aging is mainly mediated by the ubiquitin-conjugating E2 enzyme Ubc3 and the E3 ligase Bre1. Lack of Bre1 or abolishment of the ubiquitination stabilizes Set2 protein, sustains H3K36me3 levels at the aging-related gene loci, and upregulates their gene expression, thus leading to extended chronological lifespan. We further illustrate that Gcn5-mediated Set2 acetylation is a prerequisite for Bre1-catalyzed Set2 polyubiquitination and proteolysis during aging. We propose that two sequential post-translational modifications regulate Set2 homeostasis, suggesting a potential strategy to target the Gcn5-Bre1-Set2 axis for intervention of longevity.

The transcription factor FgStuA regulates virulence and mycotoxin biosynthesis via recruiting the SAGA complex in Fusarium graminearum.

The conserved Spt-Ada-Gcn5-Acetyltransferase (SAGA) complex controls eukaryotic transcription by modifying acetylation of histones. However, the mechanisms for this complex in regulating the transcription of target-specific genes remain largely unknown in phytopathogenic fungi. A filamentous fungal-specific transcription factor FgStuA was identified to interact with the SAGA complex physically. The coordinative mechanisms of FgStuA with the SAGA complex in regulating secondary metabolism and virulence were investigated in Fusarium graminearum with genetic, biochemical and molecular techniques. The transcription factor FgStuA binds to a 7-bp cis-element (BVTGCAK) of its target gene promoter. Under mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) induction conditions, FgStuA recruits the SAGA complex into the promoter of TRI6, a core regulator of the DON biosynthesis gene cluster, leading to enhanced transcription of TRI6. During this process, we found that FgStuA is subject to acetylation by the SAGA complex, and acetylation of FgStuA plays a critical role for its enrichment in the TRI6 promoter. In addition, FgStuA together with the SAGA complex modulates fungal virulence. This study uncovers a novel regulatory mechanism of a transcription factor, which recruits and interacts with the SAGA complex to activate specific gene expression in pathogenic fungi.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae acetyltransferase Gcn5 exerts antagonistic pleiotropic effects on chronological ageing.

Compared to replicative lifespan, epigenetic regulation of chronological lifespan (CLS) is less well understood in yeast. Here, by screening all the viable mutants of histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC), we demonstrate that Gcn5, functioning in the HAT module of the SAGA/SLIK complex, exhibits an epistatic relationship with the HDAC Hda1 to control the expression of starvation-induced stress response and respiratory cell growth. Surprisingly, the gcn5Δ mutants lose their colony-forming potential early in the stationary phase but display a longer maximum CLS than their WT counterparts, suggesting the contradictory roles of Gcn5 in lifespan regulation. Integrative analyses of the transcriptome, metabolome and ChIP assays reveal that Gcn5 is necessary for the activation of two regulons upon glucose starvation: the Msn2/4-/Gis1-dependent stress response and the Cat8-/Adr1-mediated metabolic reprogramming, to enable pro-longevity characteristics, including redox homeostasis, stress resistance and maximal storage of carbohydrates. The activation of Cat8-/Adr1-dependent regulon also promotes the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) bypass, leading to acetyl-CoA synthesis, global and targeted H3K9 acetylation. Global H3K9 acetylation levels mediated by Gcn5 and Hda1 during the transition into stationary phase are positively correlated with senescent cell populations accumulated in the aged cell cultures. These data suggest that Gcn5 lies in the centre of a feed-forward loop between histone acetylation and starvation-induced gene expression, enabling stress resistance and homeostasis but also promoting chronological ageing concomitantly.

Plasmodium falciparum GCN5 plays a key role in regulating artemisinin resistance-related stress responses.

Plasmodium falciparum causes the most severe malaria and is exposed to various environmental and physiological stresses in the human host. Given that GCN5 plays a critical role in regulating stress responses in model organisms, we aimed to elucidate PfGCN5's function in stress responses in P. falciparum. The protein level of PfGCN5 was substantially induced under three stress conditions [heat shock, low glucose starvation, and dihydroartemisinin, the active metabolite of artemisinin (ART)]. With a TetR-DOZI conditional knockdown (KD) system, we successfully down-regulated PfGCN5 to ~50% and found that KD parasites became more sensitive to all three stress conditions. Transcriptomic analysis via RNA-seq identified ~1,000 up- and down-regulated genes in the wild-type (WT) and KD parasites under these stress conditions. Importantly, DHA induced transcriptional alteration of many genes involved in many aspects of stress responses, which were heavily shared among the altered genes under heat shock and low glucose conditions, including ART-resistance-related genes such as K13 and coronin. Based on the expression pattern between WT and KD parasites under three stress conditions, ~300-400 genes were identified to be involved in PfGCN5-dependent, general, and stress-condition-specific responses with high levels of overlaps among three stress conditions. Notably, using ring-stage survival assay, we found that KD or inhibition of PfGCN5 could sensitize the ART-resistant parasites to the DHA treatment. All these indicate that PfGCN5 is pivotal in regulating general and ART-resistance-related stress responses in malaria parasites, implicating PfGCN5 as a potential target for malaria intervention.

Inhibition of mitochondrial fatty acid ß-oxidation activates mTORC1 pathway and protein synthesis via Gcn5-dependent acetylation of Raptor in zebrafish.

Pharmacological inhibition of mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation (FAO) has been clinically used to alleviate certain metabolic diseases by remodeling cellular metabolism. However, mitochondrial FAO inhibition also leads to mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) activation-related protein synthesis and tissue hypertrophy, but the mechanism remains unclear. Here, by using a mitochondrial FAO inhibitor (mildronate or etomoxir) or knocking out carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1, we revealed that mitochondrial FAO inhibition activated the mTORC1 pathway through general control nondepressible 5-dependent Raptor acetylation. Mitochondrial FAO inhibition significantly promoted glucose catabolism and increased intracellular acetyl-CoA levels. In response to the increased intracellular acetyl-CoA, acetyltransferase general control nondepressible 5 activated mTORC1 by catalyzing Raptor acetylation through direct interaction. Further investigation also screened Raptor deacetylase histone deacetylase class II and identified histone deacetylase 7 as a potential regulator of Raptor. These results provide a possible mechanistic explanation for the mTORC1 activation after mitochondrial FAO inhibition and also bring light to reveal the roles of nutrient metabolic remodeling in regulating protein acetylation by affecting acetyl-CoA production.