Introduction of a terminal electron sink in chloroplasts decreases leaf cell expansion associated with higher proteasome activity and lower endoreduplication.

Foliar development involves successive phases of cell proliferation and expansion that determine the final leaf size, and is characterized by an early burst of reactive oxygen species generated in the photosynthetic electron transport chain (PETC). Introduction of the alternative PETC acceptor flavodoxin in tobacco chloroplasts led to a reduction in leaf size associated to lower cell expansion, without affecting cell number per leaf. Proteomic analysis showed that the biogenesis of the PETC proceeded stepwise in wild-type leaves, with accumulation of light-harvesting proteins preceding that of electron transport components, which might explain the increased energy and electron transfer to oxygen and reactive oxygen species build-up at this stage. Flavodoxin expression did not affect biogenesis of the PETC but prevented hydroperoxide formation through its function as electron sink. Mature leaves from flavodoxin-expressing plants were shown to contain higher levels of transcripts encoding components of the proteasome, a key negative modulator of organ size. Proteome profiling revealed that this differential accumulation was initiated during expansion and led to increased proteasomal activity, whereas a proteasome inhibitor reverted the flavodoxin-dependent size phenotype. Cells expressing plastid-targeted flavodoxin displayed lower endoreduplication, also associated to decreased organ size. These results provide novel insights into the regulation of leaf growth by chloroplast-generated redox signals, and highlight the potential of alternative electron shuttles to investigate the link(s) between photosynthesis and plant development.

The Enigmatic Aliphatic Acetogenins and Their Correlations With Lipids During Seed Germination and Leaf Development of Avocado (Persea americana Mill.).

Lipids in avocados have been widely studied due to their nutritional value and several reported bioactivities. Aliphatic acetogenins are a relevant component of the avocado lipidome and have been tested for several potential food and pharma industries applications. This work followed the evolution of avocado fatty acids (FAs) and aliphatic acetogenins during seed germination and leaf growth. Oil extracts of embryonic axes, cotyledons, and leaves from seedlings and trees were divided to analyze free acetylated acetogenins (AcO-acetogenins), and free FAs. Embryonic axes from germinating seeds contained the highest amount of AcO-acetogenins and FAs; this tissue also accumulated the most diverse FA profile with up to 22 detected moieties. Leaves presented the highest variations in AcO-acetogenin profiles during development, although leaves from seedlings accumulated the simplest FA profile with only 10 different FAs. Remarkably, AcO-acetogenins represented half of the carbons allocated to lipids in grown leaves, while embryonic axes and cotyledons always contained more carbons within FAs during germination. Thus, we hypothesized the use of the AcO-acetogenin acyl chain for energy production toward ß-oxidation. Also, α-linolenic and docosahexaenoic acids (DHAs) were proposed as close AcO-acetogenin intermediaries based on a correlation network generated using all these data. Another part of the oil extract was fractionated into different lipid classes before transesterification to profile FAs and acetogenins bound to lipids. Acetogenin backbones were identified for the first time in triglycerides from cotyledons and mainly in polar lipids (which include phospholipids) in all developing avocado tissues analyzed. Seed tissues accumulated preferentially polar lipids during germination, while triglycerides were consumed in cotyledons. Seedling leaves contained minute amounts of triglycerides, and polar lipids increased as they developed. Results from this work suggest acetogenins might be part of the energy and signaling metabolisms, and possibly of membrane structures, underlining the yet to establish role(s) of these unusual lipids in the avocado plant physiology.

Photosynthesis and chloroplast redox signaling in the age of global warming: stress tolerance, acclimation, and developmental plasticity.

Contemporary climate change is characterized by the increased intensity and frequency of environmental stress events such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves, which have a debilitating impact on photosynthesis and growth, compromising the production of food, feed, and biofuels for an expanding population. The need to increase crop productivity in the context of global warming has fueled attempts to improve several key plant features such as photosynthetic performance, assimilate partitioning, and tolerance to environmental stresses. Chloroplast redox metabolism, including photosynthetic electron transport and CO2 reductive assimilation, are primary targets of most stress conditions, leading to excessive excitation pressure, photodamage, and propagation of reactive oxygen species. Alterations in chloroplast redox poise, in turn, provide signals that exit the plastid and modulate plant responses to the environmental conditions. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in these processes could provide novel tools to increase crop yield in suboptimal environments. We describe herein various interventions into chloroplast redox networks that resulted in increased tolerance to multiple sources of environmental stress. They included manipulation of endogenous components and introduction of electron carriers from other organisms, which affected not only stress endurance but also leaf size and longevity. The resulting scenario indicates that chloroplast redox pathways have an important impact on plant growth, development, and defense that goes beyond their roles in primary metabolism. Manipulation of these processes provides additional strategies for the design of crops with improved performance under destabilized climate conditions as foreseen for the future.

The ATXN2 Orthologs CID3 and CID4, Act Redundantly to In-Fluence Developmental Pathways throughout the Life Cycle of Arabidopsis thaliana.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are key elements involved in post-transcriptional regulation. Ataxin-2 (ATXN2) is an evolutionarily conserved RBP protein, whose function has been studied in several model organisms, from Saccharomyces cerevisiae to the Homo sapiens. ATXN2 interacts with poly(A) binding proteins (PABP) and binds to specific sequences at the 3'UTR of target mRNAs to stabilize them. CTC-Interacting Domain3 (CID3) and CID4 are two ATXN2 orthologs present in plant genomes whose function is unknown. In the present study, phenotypical and transcriptome profiling were used to examine the role of CID3 and CID4 in Arabidopsis thaliana. We found that they act redundantly to influence pathways throughout the life cycle. cid3cid4 double mutant showed a delay in flowering time and a reduced rosette size. Transcriptome profiling revealed that key factors that promote floral transition and floral meristem identity were downregulated in cid3cid4 whereas the flowering repressor FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) was upregulated. Expression of key factors in the photoperiodic regulation of flowering and circadian clock pathways, were also altered in cid3cid4, as well as the expression of several transcription factors and miRNAs encoding genes involved in leaf growth dynamics. These findings reveal that ATXN2 orthologs may have a role in developmental pathways throughout the life cycle of plants.

Deconvoluting apocarotenoid-mediated retrograde signaling networks regulating plastid translation and leaf development.

Signals originating within plastids modulate organelle differentiation by transcriptionally regulating nuclear-encoded genes. These retrograde signals are also integral regulators of plant development, including leaf morphology. The clb5 mutant displays severe leaf morphology defects due to Apocarotenoid Signal 1 (ACS1) accumulation in the developmentally arrested plastid. Transcriptomic analysis of clb5 validates that ACS1 accumulation deregulates hundreds of nuclear genes, including the suppression of most genes encoding plastid ribosomal proteins. Herein, we order the molecular events causing the leaf phenotype associated with the accumulation of ACS1, which includes two consecutive retrograde signaling cascades. Firstly, ACS1 originating in the plastid drives inhibition of plastid translation (IPT) via nuclear transcriptome remodeling of chlororibosomal proteins, requiring light as an essential component. Subsequently, IPT results in leaf morphological defects via a GUN1-dependent pathway shared with seedlings undergoing chemical IPT treatments and is restricted to an early window of the leaf development. Collectively, this work advances our understanding of the complexity within plastid retrograde signaling exemplified by sequential signal exchange and consequences that in a particular temporal and spatial context contribute to the modulation of leaf development.

Class I KNOX Is Related to Determinacy during the Leaf Development of the Fern Mickelia scandens (Dryopteridaceae).

Unlike seed plants, ferns leaves are considered to be structures with delayed determinacy, with a leaf apical meristem similar to the shoot apical meristems. To better understand the meristematic organization during leaf development and determinacy control, we analyzed the cell divisions and expression of Class I KNOX genes in Mickelia scandens, a fern that produces larger leaves with more pinnae in its climbing form than in its terrestrial form. We performed anatomical, in situ hybridization, and qRT-PCR experiments with histone H4 (cell division marker) and Class I KNOX genes. We found that Class I KNOX genes are expressed in shoot apical meristems, leaf apical meristems, and pinnae primordia. During early development, cell divisions occur in the most distal regions of the analyzed structures, including pinnae, and are not restricted to apical cells. Fern leaves and pinnae bear apical meristems that may partially act as indeterminate shoots, supporting the hypothesis of homology between shoots and leaves. Class I KNOX expression is correlated with indeterminacy in the apex and leaf of ferns, suggesting a conserved function for these genes in euphyllophytes with compound leaves.

Bundle sheath extensions affect leaf structural and physiological plasticity in response to irradiance.

Coordination between structural and physiological traits is key to plants' responses to environmental fluctuations. In heterobaric leaves, bundle sheath extensions (BSEs) increase photosynthetic performance (light-saturated rates of photosynthesis, Amax ) and water transport capacity (leaf hydraulic conductance, Kleaf ). However, it is not clear how BSEs affect these and other leaf developmental and physiological parameters in response to environmental conditions. The obscuravenosa (obv) mutation, found in many commercial tomato varieties, leads to absence of BSEs. We examined structural and physiological traits of tomato heterobaric and homobaric (obv) near-isogenic lines grown at two different irradiance levels. Kleaf , minor vein density, and stomatal pore area index decreased with shading in heterobaric but not in homobaric leaves, which show similarly lower values in both conditions. Homobaric plants, on the other hand, showed increased Amax , leaf intercellular air spaces, and mesophyll surface area exposed to intercellular airspace (Smes ) in comparison with heterobaric plants when both were grown in the shade. BSEs further affected carbon isotope discrimination, a proxy for long-term water-use efficiency. BSEs confer plasticity in traits related to leaf structure and function in response to irradiance levels and might act as a hub integrating leaf structure, photosynthetic function, and water supply and demand.

Characterization of Sugar Contents and Sucrose Metabolizing Enzymes in Developing Leaves of Hevea brasiliensis.

Sucrose-metabolizing enzymes in plant leaves have hitherto been investigated mainly in temperate plants, and rarely conducted in tandem with gene expression and sugar analysis. Here, we investigated the sugar content, gene expression, and the activity of sucrose-metabolizing enzymes in the leaves of Hevea brasiliensis, a tropical tree widely cultivated for natural rubber. Sucrose, fructose and glucose were the major sugars detected in Hevea leaves at four developmental stages (I to IV), with starch and quebrachitol as minor saccharides. Fructose and glucose contents increased until stage III, but decreased strongly at stage IV (mature leaves). On the other hand, sucrose increased continuously throughout leaf development. Activities of all sucrose-cleaving enzymes decreased markedly at maturation, consistent with transcript decline for most of their encoding genes. Activity of sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) was low in spite of its high transcript levels at maturation. Hence, the high sucrose content in mature leaves was not due to increased sucrose-synthesizing activity, but more to the decline in sucrose cleavage. Gene expression and activities of sucrose-metabolizing enzymes in Hevea leaves showed striking differences compared with other plants. Unlike in most other species where vacuolar invertase predominates in sucrose cleavage in developing leaves, cytoplasmic invertase and sucrose synthase (cleavage direction) also featured prominently in Hevea. Whereas SPS is normally responsible for sucrose synthesis in plant leaves, sucrose synthase (synthesis direction) was comparable or higher than that of SPS in Hevea leaves. Mature Hevea leaves had an unusually high sucrose:starch ratio of about 11, the highest reported to date in plants.

Shading effects on leaf life span and functional traits in the widespread species Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell. ) Morong / Efeitos do sombreamento sobre o tempo de vida foliar e características funcionais naespécie com ampla distribuição Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell. ) Morong

Enterolobium contortisiliquum occurs in native forests formations from southeast to northeast Brazil, and too in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. The objective of this study was to evaluate shading effects in the early growth of E. contortisiliquum plants. We measured leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll content index, biomass allocation and leaf development in plants in sunny and shaded areas. The experiment was performed in Universidade Federal de Viçosa, campus Florestal, Minas Gerais, Brazil. To determine the effects of different light regimes (full sunlight and shade) on the growth of E. contortisiliquum plants, we divided plants into two groups: plants grown in a greenhouse under full sunlight, and plants grown under 70% shade tissue. E. contortisiliquum plants grown in full sunlight showed an increase in maximum net photosynthesis, root, stem, and leaf dry mass, root length, root/stem ratio, and length of the stem. However, E. contortisiliquum under shade showed larger specific leaf area, leaf area ratio, chlorophyll content, long leaf life span, and slow growth. These ecophysiological adjustments in sunny and shaded areas may explain the wide geographical distribution of E. contortisiliquum in many vegetation types.(AU)

Enterolobium contortisiliquum ocorre em formações florestais nativas do sudeste ao nordeste doBrasil e também na Argentina, Bolívia e Paraguai. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos dosombreamento no crescimento inicial de E. contortisiliquum. As trocas gasosas foliares, o índice de conteúdode clorofila, a alocação de biomassa e o desenvolvimento foliar foram avaliados em plantas sob sol pleno esombra. O experimento foi realizado na Universidade Federal de Viçosa, campus Florestal, Minas Gerais,Brasil. Para determinar os efeitos de diferentes regimes de luz sobre o crescimento das plantas de E.contortisiliquum, dividimos as plantas em dois grupos: plantas que cresceram em estufa a pleno sol e plantasque cresceram sob sombrite 70%. As plantas de E. contortisiliquum que cresceram em pleno sol apresentaramaumento na fotossíntese líquida máxima, massa seca de raiz, de caule e folhas, comprimento de raiz, razãomassa de raiz/caule e comprimento do caule. Entretanto, plantas de E. contortisiliquum sob sombraapresentaram maior área foliar específica, razão de área foliar, conteúdo de clorofila, tempo de vida foliar ecrescimento lento. Esses ajustes ecofisiológicos em áreas sob sol e sombra podem explicar a ampladistribuição geográfica de E. contortisiliquum em muitos tipos vegetacionais.(AU)

Shading effects on leaf life span and functional traits in the widespread species Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell) Morong / Efeitos do sombreamento sobre o tempo de vida foliar e características funcionais na espécie com ampla distribuição Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell) Morong

Enterolobium contortisiliquum occurs in native forests formations from southeast to northeast Brazil, and too in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. The objective of this study was to evaluate shading effects in the early growth of E. contortisiliquum plants. We measured leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll content index, biomass allocation and leaf development in plants in sunny and shaded areas. The experiment was performed in Universidade Federal de Viçosa, campus Florestal, Minas Gerais, Brazil. To determine the effects of different light regimes (full sunlight and shade) on the growth of E. contortisiliquum plants, we divided plants into two groups: plants grown in a greenhouse under full sunlight, and plants grown under 70% shade tissue. E. contortisiliquum plants grown in full sunlight showed an increase in maximum net photosynthesis, root, stem, and leaf dry mass, root length, root/stem ratio, and length of the stem. However, E. contortisiliquum under shade showed larger specific leaf area, leaf area ratio, chlorophyll content, long leaf life span, and slow growth. These ecophysiological adjustments in sunny and shaded areas may explain the wide geographical distribution of E. contortisiliquum in many vegetation types.

Enterolobium contortisiliquum ocorre em formações florestais nativas do sudeste ao nordeste do Brasil e também na Argentina, Bolívia e Paraguai. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos do sombreamento no crescimento inicial de E. contortisiliquum. As trocas gasosas foliares, o índice de conteúdo de clorofila, a alocação de biomassa e o desenvolvimento foliar foram avaliados em plantas sob sol pleno e sombra. O experimento foi realizado na Universidade Federal de Viçosa, campus Florestal, Minas Gerais, Brasil. Para determinar os efeitos de diferentes regimes de luz sobre o crescimento das plantas de E. contortisiliquum, dividimos as plantas em dois grupos: plantas que cresceram em estufa a pleno sol e plantas que cresceram sob sombrite 70%. As plantas de E. contortisiliquum que cresceram em pleno sol apresentaram aumento na fotossíntese líquida máxima, massa seca de raiz, de caule e folhas, comprimento de raiz, razão massa de raiz/caule e comprimento do caule. Entretanto, plantas de E. contortisiliquum sob sombra apresentaram maior área foliar específica, razão de área foliar, conteúdo de clorofila, tempo de vida foliar e crescimento lento. Esses ajustes ecofisiológicos em áreas sob sol e sombra podem explicar a ampla distribuição geográfica de E. contortisiliquum em muitos tipos vegetacionais.

Estimation of Stomatal Aperture in Arabidopsis thaliana Using Silicone Rubber Imprints.

Estimation of stomatal aperture using low viscosity silicone-base impression material has the advantage of working with the whole leaf. The developmental stage and the environment strongly affect the stomatal aperture. Therefore, it is mandatory to have accurate estimations of the stomatal aperture of intact leaves under different situations. With this technique, it is possible to get the real picture at any moment. The outputs of the data include studies on cell area and morphology, epidermis cell and stomata lineages, among others. This protocol is useful for the accurate estimation of stomatal aperture in many samples of intact leaves in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Leaf colleters in Tontelea micrantha (Celastraceae, Salacioideae): ecological, morphological and structural aspects.

The colleter secretion can be useful to protect plants of Cerrado (Brazilian savanna) biome during the long and pronounced dry season. This study describes the presence of colleters in Tontelea micrantha and represents the first record of these structures in Celastraceae. To investigate colleter structure and their secretory processes, young leaves were collected, fixed, and processed according to conventional techniques for light, and electron microscopy. Colleters were observed at the marginal teeth on the leaf. They produce mucilaginous secretions that spread over the leaf surface. After secretory phase, colleters abscise. The secretory epithelium is uniseriate and composed of elongated cells whose dense cytoplasm is rich in organelles. The ultrastructure of the secretory cells is compatible with the pectin-rich secretion. Observations of the young leaves surface revealed the presence of superficial hydrophilic secretion films that appeared to have the function of maintaining the water status of those organs.

Concentração e redistribuição de nutrientes minerais nos diferentes estádios foliares de seringueira / Concentration and redistribution of mineral nutrients at different stages in the development of the Rubber tree leaf

A seringueira na fase adulta possui um crescimento intermitente com o processo de troca de folhas, que é caracterizado pela senescência. Esse é um mecanismo que as árvores utilizam para reciclarem os nutrientes, por meio dos ciclos bioquímico e biogeoquímico. Estudos sobre o ciclo bioquímico são necessários para verificar o comportamento dos nutrientes minerais, nos diferentes estádios foliares, pois a conservação desses é importante, visto que os seringais são implantados em solos de baixa fertilidade. Desse modo, este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a dinâmica dos nutrientes minerais, durante os diferentes estádios foliares da seringueira. As folhas utilizadas foram provenientes de plantas do clone RRIM-600, de um seringal localizado em Nepomuceno, MG. Foram selecionadas oito árvores adultas que possuíam folhas nos diferentes estádios (B1, B2, C e D) e as senescentes (Sen.). As folhas nos estádios B1, B2, C e D foram coletadas nos quatro pontos ortogonais e as senescentes foram coletadas no solo após a agitação mecânica dos galhos. Observou-se que os nutrientes N, P, K, S, Cu e Zn diminuíram os seus teores nos diferentes estádios foliares da seringueira. No entanto, para Ca, Mg, B, Fe e Mn, verificarou-se um comportamento inverso. A redistribuição dos nutrientes foi maior para N, P, K e Cu. A ordem relativa dos teores de macronutrientes encontrados nas folhas foi: N>K>Ca>Mg≥S>P e, para os micronutrientes, a ordem foi: Mn>Fe>Zn>B>Cu.

The Rubber tree during its adult phase presents intermittent growth within the leaf exchange process characterized by senescence, which is a nutrient-recycling mechanism used by trees through biochemical and biogeochemical cycles. Studies including biochemical cycles are necessary in order to verify the mineral nutrients' dynamics at different leaf stages. The conservation of such nutrients is very important to optimize the growing conditions for rubber plantations which are located in soils with low fertility. This study aims to evaluate the mineral nutrients' dynamics during different leaf stages of the rubber tree, leaves were collected from the clones of RRIM-600 taken from a rubber tree plantation in Nepomuceno County, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Eight adult examples with leaves in different stages: B1, B2, C and D, plus senescent leaves (Sen) were selected for the study. Samples from leaves in stages B1, B2, C and D were taken from the trees at the four orthogonal points; the senescent leaves were collected from the ground after mechanically shaking the branches. The study revealed a decrease in the level of N, P, K, S, Cu and Zn during the development of the rubber tree's leaf. In contrast, during the same period the levels of Ca, Mg, B, Fe and Mn increased. The redistribution for N, P, K and Cu was higher and the relative order of macronutrient and micronutrient levels in the leaves were respectively: N>K>Ca>Mg≥S>P and Mn>Fe>Zn>B>Cu.

Concentração e redistribuição de nutrientes minerais nos diferentes estádios foliares de seringueira

The Rubber tree during its adult phase presents intermittent growth within the leaf exchange process characterized by senescence, which is a nutrient-recycling mechanism used by trees through biochemical and biogeochemical cycles. Studies including biochemical cycles are necessary in order to verify the mineral nutrients' dynamics at different leaf stages. The conservation of such nutrients is very important to optimize the growing conditions for rubber plantations which are located in soils with low fertility. This study aims to evaluate the mineral nutrients' dynamics during different leaf stages of the rubber tree, leaves were collected from the clones of RRIM-600 taken from a rubber tree plantation in Nepomuceno County, State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Eight adult examples with leaves in different stages: B1, B2, C and D, plus senescent leaves (Sen) were selected for the study. Samples from leaves in stages B1, B2, C and D were taken from the trees at the four orthogonal points; the senescent leaves were collected from the ground after mechanically shaking the branches. The study revealed a decrease in the level of N, P, K, S, Cu and Zn during the development of the rubber tree's leaf. In contrast, during the same period the levels of Ca, Mg, B, Fe and Mn increased. The redistribution for N, P, K and Cu was higher and the relative order of macronutrient and micronutrient levels in the leaves were respectively: N>K>Ca>Mg>S>P and Mn>Fe>Zn>B>Cu

A seringueira na fase adulta possui um crescimento intermitente com o processo de troca de folhas, que é caracterizado pela senescência. Esse é um mecanismo que as árvores utilizam para reciclarem os nutrientes, por meio dos ciclos bioquímico e biogeoquímico. Estudos sobre o ciclo bioquímico são necessários para verificar o comportamento dos nutrientes minerais, nos diferentes estádios foliares, pois a conservação desses é importante, visto que os seringais são implantados em solos de baixa fertilidade. Desse modo, este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a dinâmica dos nutrientes minerais, durante os diferentes estádios foliares da seringueira. As folhas utilizadas foram provenientes de plantas do clone RRIM-600, de um seringal localizado em Nepomuceno, MG. Foram selecionadas oito árvores adultas que possuíam folhas nos diferentes estádios (B1, B2, C e D) e as senescentes (Sen.). As folhas nos estádios B1, B2, C e D foram coletadas nos quatro pontos ortogonais e as senescentes foram coletadas no solo após a agitação mecânica dos galhos. Observou-se que os nutrientes N, P, K, S, Cu e Zn diminuíram os seus teores nos diferentes estádios foliares da seringueira. No entanto, para Ca, Mg, B, Fe e Mn, verificarou-se um comportamento inverso. A redistribuição dos nutrientes foi maior para N, P, K e Cu. A ordem relativa dos teores de macronutrientes encontrados nas folhas foi: N>K>Ca>Mg>S>P e, para os micronutrientes, a ordem foi: Mn>Fe>Zn>B>Cu.

Desenvolvimento foliar e sincronismo dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417' / Leaf development and tiller synchronism in rice cultivar 'IRGA 417'

O sincronismo de emissão e desenvolvimento de folhas entre o colmo principal e afilhos é determinante para a sobrevivência dessas estruturas durante o ciclo de cultivo do arroz. O presente trabalho teve como objetivos estudar o desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal e dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417' e identificar a ocorrência de sincronismo entre esses dois processos durante o estádio vegetativo, utilizando a escala de desenvolvimento proposta por HAUN (1973). O experimento foi conduzido em sistema hidropônico, e as plantas foram cultivadas até o início do desenvolvimento da oitava folha do colmo principal (22 dias após o transplante). A emergência da primeira folha de cada afilho foi retardada e quase coincidiu com a emissão da segunda folha. A emergência do primeiro e do segundo afilho foi concomitante e iniciou quando as plantas estavam com 3.9 unidades Haun, estendendo-se até o estádio 5.1 da escala de Haun. Já a emissão do terceiro e do quarto afilho foi posterior e ocorreu quando as plantas apresentavam, em média, 6.0 e 7.0 unidades Haun, respectivamente. O sincronismo ocorreu apesar da emissão tardia da primeira folha dos afilhos, e o percentual de afilhos sincronizados aumentou com o avanço do desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal.

Synchronism of leaf development between main stem and tillers has a strong influence on tillers surviving, mainly on early stages plant cycle in rice. Leaf development in rice cultivar 'IRGA 417' was studied to identify synchronism between tillers and main stem on early vegetative period using the growth stages as proposed by HAUN (1973). Plants were grown in hydroponic system until the main stem eighth leaf (22 days after transplant). First leaf appearance of each primary tiller was delayed and almost coincided with the emergence of second leaf. First and second tillers appearance were concomitant and began when the plants were on the stage 3.9 (HAUN, 1973). Third and fourth tillers appeared later when the plants were, on average, on stage 6.0 and 7.0 (HAUN, 1973), respectively. Synchronism, characterized by the difference between number of leaves of main stem and tillers, occurred despite the late emergence of the tillers' first leaf, and the percentage of synchronized tillers increased along with the main stem leaf development.

Desenvolvimento foliar e sincronismo dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417'

Synchronism of leaf development between main stem and tillers has a strong influence on tillers surviving, mainly on early stages plant cycle in rice. Leaf development in rice cultivar 'IRGA 417' was studied to identify synchronism between tillers and main stem on early vegetative period using the growth stages as proposed by HAUN (1973). Plants were grown in hydroponic system until the main stem eighth leaf (22 days after transplant). First leaf appearance of each primary tiller was delayed and almost coincided with the emergence of second leaf. First and second tillers appearance were concomitant and began when the plants were on the stage 3.9 (HAUN, 1973). Third and fourth tillers appeared later when the plants were, on average, on stage 6.0 and 7.0 (HAUN, 1973), respectively. Synchronism, characterized by the difference between number of leaves of main stem and tillers, occurred despite the late emergence of the tillers' first leaf, and the percentage of synchronized tillers increased along with the main stem leaf development.

O sincronismo de emissão e desenvolvimento de folhas entre o colmo principal e afilhos é determinante para a sobrevivência dessas estruturas durante o ciclo de cultivo do arroz. O presente trabalho teve como objetivos estudar o desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal e dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417' e identificar a ocorrência de sincronismo entre esses dois processos durante o estádio vegetativo, utilizando a escala de desenvolvimento proposta por HAUN (1973). O experimento foi conduzido em sistema hidropônico, e as plantas foram cultivadas até o início do desenvolvimento da oitava folha do colmo principal (22 dias após o transplante). A emergência da primeira folha de cada afilho foi retardada e quase coincidiu com a emissão da segunda folha. A emergência do primeiro e do segundo afilho foi concomitante e iniciou quando as plantas estavam com 3.9 unidades Haun, estendendo-se até o estádio 5.1 da escala de Haun. Já a emissão do terceiro e do quarto afilho foi posterior e ocorreu quando as plantas apresentavam, em média, 6.0 e 7.0 unidades Haun, respectivamente. O sincronismo ocorreu apesar da emissão tardia da primeira folha dos afilhos, e o percentual de afilhos sincronizados aumentou com o avanço do desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal.

Desenvolvimento foliar e sincronismo dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417'

Synchronism of leaf development between main stem and tillers has a strong influence on tillers surviving, mainly on early stages plant cycle in rice. Leaf development in rice cultivar 'IRGA 417' was studied to identify synchronism between tillers and main stem on early vegetative period using the growth stages as proposed by HAUN (1973). Plants were grown in hydroponic system until the main stem eighth leaf (22 days after transplant). First leaf appearance of each primary tiller was delayed and almost coincided with the emergence of second leaf. First and second tillers appearance were concomitant and began when the plants were on the stage 3.9 (HAUN, 1973). Third and fourth tillers appeared later when the plants were, on average, on stage 6.0 and 7.0 (HAUN, 1973), respectively. Synchronism, characterized by the difference between number of leaves of main stem and tillers, occurred despite the late emergence of the tillers' first leaf, and the percentage of synchronized tillers increased along with the main stem leaf development.

O sincronismo de emissão e desenvolvimento de folhas entre o colmo principal e afilhos é determinante para a sobrevivência dessas estruturas durante o ciclo de cultivo do arroz. O presente trabalho teve como objetivos estudar o desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal e dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417' e identificar a ocorrência de sincronismo entre esses dois processos durante o estádio vegetativo, utilizando a escala de desenvolvimento proposta por HAUN (1973). O experimento foi conduzido em sistema hidropônico, e as plantas foram cultivadas até o início do desenvolvimento da oitava folha do colmo principal (22 dias após o transplante). A emergência da primeira folha de cada afilho foi retardada e quase coincidiu com a emissão da segunda folha. A emergência do primeiro e do segundo afilho foi concomitante e iniciou quando as plantas estavam com 3.9 unidades Haun, estendendo-se até o estádio 5.1 da escala de Haun. Já a emissão do terceiro e do quarto afilho foi posterior e ocorreu quando as plantas apresentavam, em média, 6.0 e 7.0 unidades Haun, respectivamente. O sincronismo ocorreu apesar da emissão tardia da primeira folha dos afilhos, e o percentual de afilhos sincronizados aumentou com o avanço do desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal.

Desenvolvimento foliar e sincronismo dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417'

Synchronism of leaf development between main stem and tillers has a strong influence on tillers surviving, mainly on early stages plant cycle in rice. Leaf development in rice cultivar 'IRGA 417' was studied to identify synchronism between tillers and main stem on early vegetative period using the growth stages as proposed by HAUN (1973). Plants were grown in hydroponic system until the main stem eighth leaf (22 days after transplant). First leaf appearance of each primary tiller was delayed and almost coincided with the emergence of second leaf. First and second tillers appearance were concomitant and began when the plants were on the stage 3.9 (HAUN, 1973). Third and fourth tillers appeared later when the plants were, on average, on stage 6.0 and 7.0 (HAUN, 1973), respectively. Synchronism, characterized by the difference between number of leaves of main stem and tillers, occurred despite the late emergence of the tillers' first leaf, and the percentage of synchronized tillers increased along with the main stem leaf development.

O sincronismo de emissão e desenvolvimento de folhas entre o colmo principal e afilhos é determinante para a sobrevivência dessas estruturas durante o ciclo de cultivo do arroz. O presente trabalho teve como objetivos estudar o desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal e dos afilhos na cultivar de arroz 'IRGA 417' e identificar a ocorrência de sincronismo entre esses dois processos durante o estádio vegetativo, utilizando a escala de desenvolvimento proposta por HAUN (1973). O experimento foi conduzido em sistema hidropônico, e as plantas foram cultivadas até o início do desenvolvimento da oitava folha do colmo principal (22 dias após o transplante). A emergência da primeira folha de cada afilho foi retardada e quase coincidiu com a emissão da segunda folha. A emergência do primeiro e do segundo afilho foi concomitante e iniciou quando as plantas estavam com 3.9 unidades Haun, estendendo-se até o estádio 5.1 da escala de Haun. Já a emissão do terceiro e do quarto afilho foi posterior e ocorreu quando as plantas apresentavam, em média, 6.0 e 7.0 unidades Haun, respectivamente. O sincronismo ocorreu apesar da emissão tardia da primeira folha dos afilhos, e o percentual de afilhos sincronizados aumentou com o avanço do desenvolvimento foliar do colmo principal.

Leaf development in Xylopia aromatica (Lam) Mart. (Annonaceae): implications for palatability to Stenoma scitiorella Walker 1864 (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae) / Crescimento foliar em Xylopia aromatica (Lam) Mart. (Annonaceae): implicações sobre a palatabilidade para lagartas de Stenoma scitiorella Walker 1864 (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae)

Variations in specific foliar mass and water content, nitrogen, soluble carbohydrates and tannins were studied during the growth and maturation processes of the Xylopia aromatica leaves, to determine the effects of such alterations on the herbivory of Stenoma scitiorella caterpillars. This work was carried out in the physiognomy of the typical cerrado of the Parque Estadual de Vassununga, Gleba Pé-de Gigante, Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, São Paulo State, Brazil. While nutritional quality (water and nitrogen) decreases during expansion and maturation of Xylopia aromatica leaves, the chemical (tannins) and physical (sclerophylly) defenses are raised. In agreement with the observations on herbivory, the results support the hypothesis that the reduction in palatability and increase in chemical defenses of Xylopia aromatica leaves account for the caterpillars' preference for young expanding leaves.

Com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos do crescimento e do amadurecimento de folhas de Xylopia aromatica sob o ataque de lagartas de Stenoma scitiorella, foram estudados a variação da área, massa foliar específica, bem como os teores de água, nitrogênio, hidratos de carbono e taninos durante estes processos. O trabalho foi desenvolvido numa fisionomia de cerrado stricto sensu na Gleba Pé-de-Gigante do Parque Estadual de Vassununga, localizado no município de Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. A expansão e o amadurecimento das folhas de Xylopia aromatica resultaram na redução da qualidade nutricional e no aumento de defesas químicas e físicas. Concordando com as observações realizadas sobre a herbivoria, os resultados permitem supor que a redução na palatabilidade das folhas pode explicar a preferência das lagartas por folhas jovens ainda no início do processo de expansão.

Leaf development in Xylopia aromatica (Lam) Mart. (Annonaceae): implications for palatability to Stenoma scitiorella Walker 1864 (Lepidoptera: Elachistidae)

Variations in specific foliar mass and water content, nitrogen, soluble carbohydrates and tannins were studied during the growth and maturation processes of the Xylopia aromatica leaves, to determine the effects of such alterations on the herbivory of Stenoma scitiorella caterpillars. This work was carried out in the physiognomy of the typical cerrado of the Parque Estadual de Vassununga, Gleba Pé-de Gigante, Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, São Paulo State, Brazil. While nutritional quality (water and nitrogen) decreases during expansion and maturation of Xylopia aromatica leaves, the chemical (tannins) and physical (sclerophylly) defenses are raised. In agreement with the observations on herbivory, the results support the hypothesis that the reduction in palatability and increase in chemical defenses of Xylopia aromatica leaves account for the caterpillars' preference for young expanding leaves.

Com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos do crescimento e do amadurecimento de folhas de Xylopia aromatica sob o ataque de lagartas de Stenoma scitiorella, foram estudados a variação da área, massa foliar específica, bem como os teores de água, nitrogênio, hidratos de carbono e taninos durante estes processos. O trabalho foi desenvolvido numa fisionomia de cerrado stricto sensu na Gleba Pé-de-Gigante do Parque Estadual de Vassununga, localizado no município de Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. A expansão e o amadurecimento das folhas de Xylopia aromatica resultaram na redução da qualidade nutricional e no aumento de defesas químicas e físicas. Concordando com as observações realizadas sobre a herbivoria, os resultados permitem supor que a redução na palatabilidade das folhas pode explicar a preferência das lagartas por folhas jovens ainda no início do processo de expansão.