Papéis sexuais, amor e satisfação conjugal em indivíduos heterossexuais e homossexuais / Sex roles, love, and conjugal satisfaction in heterosexual and homosexual individuals / Roles sexuales, amor y satisfacción conyugal en individuos heterosexuales y homosexuales

A experiência do amor entre pessoas do mesmo sexo ainda é percebida numa ótica social estigmatizante. Na tentativa de contribuir com a discussão dessa questão, neste estudo, foram geradas evidências de validade e fidedignidade para o Bem Sex Role Inventory - reduzido por meio da análise dos escores de 331 indivíduos heterossexuais e homossexuais, de ambos os sexos, que coabitavam com seus parceiros amorosos há pelo menos um ano no Rio de Janeiro/RJ. Também foi realizada uma análise confirmatória da Escala Triangular do Amor - reduzida, que revelou bom ajuste do modelo e invariância de medida para homossexuais e heterossexuais. Além disso, foram verificadas as relações entre orientação sexual, papéis sexuais, amor e satisfação conjugal. A intimidade e o compromisso no amor foram os melhores preditores da satisfação conjugal para ambos os grupos. Foram encontradas algumas evidências que questionam os estereótipos sociais vinculados às relações amorosas de pessoas de mesmo sexo. (AU)

The experience of same-sex love is still perceived from a stigmatizing social perspective. In an attempt to contribute to the discussion of this issue, this study generated evidence of validity and reliability for the Bem Sex Role Inventory-Reduced by analyzing the scores of 331 heterosexual and homosexual individuals, of both sexes, who cohabited with their partners for at least one year in the city of Rio de Janeiro, state of Rio de Janeiro. A confirmatory analysis of the Triangular Scale of Love-Reduced was also performed, which revealed good model fit and invariance of measurement for homosexuals and heterosexuals. In addition, the relationships between Sexual Orientation, Sex Roles, Love and Conjugal Satisfaction were verified. Intimacy and Commitment were the best predictors of Conjugal Satisfaction for both groups. Some evidence was found questioning the social stereotypes associated to same-sex relationships. (AU)

La relación amorosa entre personas del mismo sexo aún es percibida desde una estigmatizante perspectiva social. Tratando de contribuir con la discusión de este tema, en este estudio se generaron evidencias de validez y fidedignidad para el Bem Sex Role Inventory-Reducido, por medio del análisis de los resultados obtenidos de 331 individuos heterosexuales y homosexuales, de ambos sexos, que viven con sus parejas por lo menos desde hace un año en Río de Janeiro / RJ. También se realizó un análisis confirmatorio de la Escala Triangular del Amor-Reducida, que reveló buen ajuste del modelo e invariancia de medida para homosexuales y heterosexuales. Se verificaron las relaciones entre Orientación Sexual, Roles Sexuales, Amor y Satisfacción Conjugal. La Intimidad y Compromiso en el amor fueron los mejores predictores de Satisfacción Conjugal para ambos grupos. Se encontraron algunas evidencias que cuestionan los estereotipos sociales vinculados a relaciones amorosas entre personas del mismo sexo. (AU)

Differential introgression of a female competitive trait in a hybrid zone between sex-role reversed species.

Mating behavior between recently diverged species in secondary contact can impede or promote reproductive isolation. Traditionally, researchers focus on the importance of female mate choice and male-male competition in maintaining or eroding species barriers. Although female-female competition is widespread, little is known about its role in the speciation process. Here, we investigate a case of interspecific female competition and its influence on patterns of phenotypic and genetic introgression between species. We examine a hybrid zone between sex-role reversed, Neotropical shorebird species, the northern jacana (Jacana spinosa) and wattled jacana (J. jacana), in which female-female competition is a major determinant of reproductive success. Previous work found that females of the more aggressive and larger species, J. spinosa, disproportionately mother hybrid offspring, potentially by monopolizing breeding territories in sympatry with J. jacana. We find a cline shift of female body mass relative to the genetic center of the hybrid zone, consistent with asymmetric introgression of this competitive trait. We suggest that divergence in sexual characteristics between sex-role reversed females can influence patterns of gene flow upon secondary contact, similar to males in systems with more typical sex roles.

Homofobia e sexualidade em adolescentes: trajetórias sexuais, riscos e vulnerabilidades / Homophobia and sexuality in adolescents: sexual trajectories, risks and vulnerabilities / Homofobia y sexualidade en adolescentes: trayectorias sexuales, riesgos y vulnerabilidades

Esta pesquisa é um estudo transversal realizado junto a 2282 estudantes de ambos os sexos que cursavam as três séries do ensino médio em três cidades do interior do oeste paulista. O instrumento de coleta de dados empregado foi um questionário autoaplicável com 131 questões. Neste artigo, abordamos as trajetórias sexuais de adolescentes de ambos os sexos que mantêm práticas sexuais homoeróticas ou não. Discutimos as relações desses adolescentes com seus familiares e grupos de pares e a questão de sair do armário como ferramenta política. Tendo como base as concepções de Sedgwick, analisamos os momentos em que sair do armário pode ser uma entre tantas maneiras de manifestação das diferentes sexualidades em relação à heteronormatividade. Apoiando-nos nas colocações de teóricos pós-estruturalistas, abordamos também as construções teóricas e as produções discursivas sobre a adolescência, apontando novas manifestações da juventude na contemporaneidade. Por fim, percebemos a existência de amplos fatores que afetam as decisões de jovens não heterossexuais quanto a sair (ou não) do armário para além da homofobia: eventos pessoais, histórias de vida e mesmo a revelação de sua sexualidade aos pais e/ou a outras pessoas...

This is a descriptive analytical cross-sectional study conducted with 2282 male and female students who attended high school in three cities of the western interior of São Paulo, Brazil. Data collection was done by a self-reported questionnaire with 131 questions. This paper discusses the sexual trajectories of these adolescents who enrolled in homoerotic sexual practices or not. These adolescents’ relationships with their families, peer groups and the subject of “coming out” are discussed as political tools. Based on Sedgwick’s concepts we analyze the moments when “coming out” can be one in many other ways of manifestation of different sexualities in relation to heteronormativity. Relying on post-structuralism theories, we also discuss theoretical constructions and discourses about adolescence, pointing at new manifestations of juvenile in contemporaneity. Finally, we realize the existence of many factors that affect the decisions of non-heterosexual youths in relation to “coming out of the closet” beyond homophobia: personal events, life stories and even the revelation of their sexuality to their parents and/or to others.

Se trata de estudio transversal realizado junto a 2.282 estudiantes de ambos sexos cursando los tres cursos de la Enseñanza Media en tres ciudades del interior del Oeste Paulista. El instrumento de colecta de datos empleado fue un cuestionario auto-aplicable con 131 cuestiones. En este artículo abordamos las trayectorias sexuales de adolescentes de ambos los sexos que mantienen prácticas sexuales homoeróticas o no. Discutimos las relaciones de esos adolescentes con sus familiares y grupos de pares y la cuestión de “salir del armario” como herramienta política. Teniendo como base las concepciones de Sedgwick, analizamos los momentos en que ‘salir del armario’ puede ser una entre tantas maneras de manifestación de las diferentes sexualidades en relación a la heteronormatividad. Apoyándonos en las propuestas de teóricos posestructuralistas abordamos también las construcciones teóricas y las producciones discursivas sobre la adolescencia, apuntando hacia nuevas manifestaciones de la juventud en la contemporaneidad. Por fin, percibimos la existencia de amplios factores que afectan a las decisiones de jóvenes no heterosexuales en lo referente a ‘salir (o no) del armario’ más allá de la homofobia: eventos personales, historias de vida e incluso la revelación de su sexualidad a sus padres y/o a otras personas...

Homofobia e sexualidade em adolescentes: trajetórias sexuais, riscos e vulnerabilidades / Homophobia and sexuality in adolescents: sexual trajectories, risks and vulnerabilities / Homofobia y sexualidade en adolescentes: trayectorias sexuales, riesgos y vulnerabilidades

Esta pesquisa é um estudo transversal realizado junto a 2282 estudantes de ambos os sexos que cursavam as três séries do ensino médio em três cidades do interior do oeste paulista. O instrumento de coleta de dados empregado foi um questionário autoaplicável com 131 questões. Neste artigo, abordamos as trajetórias sexuais de adolescentes de ambos os sexos que mantêm práticas sexuais homoeróticas ou não. Discutimos as relações desses adolescentes com seus familiares e grupos de pares e a questão de sair do armário como ferramenta política. Tendo como base as concepções de Sedgwick, analisamos os momentos em que sair do armário pode ser uma entre tantas maneiras de manifestação das diferentes sexualidades em relação à heteronormatividade. Apoiando-nos nas colocações de teóricos pós-estruturalistas, abordamos também as construções teóricas e as produções discursivas sobre a adolescência, apontando novas manifestações da juventude na contemporaneidade. Por fim, percebemos a existência de amplos fatores que afetam as decisões de jovens não heterossexuais quanto a sair (ou não) do armário para além da homofobia: eventos pessoais, histórias de vida e mesmo a revelação de sua sexualidade aos pais e/ou a outras pessoas.(AU)

This is a descriptive analytical cross-sectional study conducted with 2282 male and female students who attended high school in three cities of the western interior of São Paulo, Brazil. Data collection was done by a self-reported questionnaire with 131 questions. This paper discusses the sexual trajectories of these adolescents who enrolled in homoerotic sexual practices or not. These adolescents’ relationships with their families, peer groups and the subject of “coming out” are discussed as political tools. Based on Sedgwick’s concepts we analyze the moments when “coming out” can be one in many other ways of manifestation of different sexualities in relation to heteronormativity. Relying on post-structuralism theories, we also discuss theoretical constructions and discourses about adolescence, pointing at new manifestations of juvenile in contemporaneity. Finally, we realize the existence of many factors that affect the decisions of non-heterosexual youths in relation to “coming out of the closet” beyond homophobia: personal events, life stories and even the revelation of their sexuality to their parents and/or to others.(AU)

Se trata de estudio transversal realizado junto a 2.282 estudiantes de ambos sexos cursando los tres cursos de la Enseñanza Media en tres ciudades del interior del Oeste Paulista. El instrumento de colecta de datos empleado fue un cuestionario auto-aplicable con 131 cuestiones. En este artículo abordamos las trayectorias sexuales de adolescentes de ambos los sexos que mantienen prácticas sexuales homoeróticas o no. Discutimos las relaciones de esos adolescentes con sus familiares y grupos de pares y la cuestión de “salir del armario” como herramienta política. Teniendo como base las concepciones de Sedgwick, analizamos los momentos en que ‘salir del armario’ puede ser una entre tantas maneras de manifestación de las diferentes sexualidades en relación a la heteronormatividad. Apoyándonos en las propuestas de teóricos posestructuralistas abordamos también las construcciones teóricas y las producciones discursivas sobre la adolescencia, apuntando hacia nuevas manifestaciones de la juventud en la contemporaneidad. Por fin, percibimos la existencia de amplios factores que afectan a las decisiones de jóvenes no heterosexuales en lo referente a ‘salir (o no) del armario’ más allá de la homofobia: eventos personales, historias de vida e incluso la revelación de su sexualidad a sus padres y/o a otras personas.(AU)

Bienestar psicológico y orientación de rol sexual en estudiantes universitarios / Psychological well-being and sex role orientation in university students

Este estudio examinó la relación entre el bienestar psicológico, las dimensiones de masculinidad y feminidad y las categorías de orientación de rol sexual (masculino, femenino, andrógino, indiferenciado). Los participantes fueron 346 estudiantes de ambos sexos de la Universidad de Concepción (Chile) con edades entre 18 y 31 años, quienes respondieron instrumentos referentes a bienestar psicológico y dimensiones de rol sexual. Los resultados mostraron que el bienestar psicológico presentaba mayor relación con la dimensión de masculinidad que con la de feminidad, y que los participantes categorizados como indiferenciados presentaron un nivel significativamente menor de bienestar psicológico que el resto de las orientaciones de rol sexual, siendo los individuos andróginos los que informaron el mayor nivel de bienestar. Se proponen diversos factores para explicar los resultados obtenidos.

This study was designed to estimate the relationships between psychological well-being, masculinity, femininity and the sex role orientation categories (masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated). Participants were 346 male and female students, 18 to 31 y ears old, from the University de Concepción (Chile). Individuals completed measures of psychological well-being and sex role orientation. Results show that psychological well-being had higher relationships with masculinity than with femininity and those participants with undifferentiated orientation reported lower well-being scores than did those with other orientations, being the androgynous category associated with the highest reported well-being. Diverse explanatory factors for obtained results are proposed.

Reavaliando o Bem Sex-Role Inventory / Reevaluating the Bem Sex-Role Inventory

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a estrutura do Bem Sex Role Inventory respondido por uma amostra não probabilística de homens e mulheres brasileiras. Mais de uma década após a última revisão brasileira do inventário, um novo exame faz-se necessário, devido à forte influência cultural sobre seus itens. A escala foi aplicada junto a 922 sujeitos, recrutados em diversos locais de Porto Alegre (RS) e região metropolitana. Foi realizada uma avaliação da estrutura da escala usando a técnica estatística análise fatorial. Além disso, foi examinada a fidedignidade do instrumento. Os resultados obtidos foram comparados com os estudos anteriores. Em geral, apareceram evidências que dão forte apoio à versão verificada e, desta forma, habilitam-na para ser usada na pesquisa psicológica.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the structure of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, answered by a non-probabilistic sample of Brazilian men and women. More than a decade after the last Brazilian review of the Inventory, it has become necessary to conduct a fresh examination, due to the strong cultural influence regarding its content. The scale was applied to 922 subjects recruited from several locations in Porto Alegre (in the state of Rio Grande do Sul) and its metropolitan area. An evaluation of the structure of the scale was carried out using Factorial Analysis. In addition, the reliability of the scale was also examined. The findings were compared to previous studies. Generally speaking, the evidence strongly supports the approved version, thereby qualifying it to be used in psychological research.

[The God of women]. / El dios de las mujeres.

PIP: The discourse of Christian theologians is by men and for men. The story of Salvation is about men; women have been excluded or colonized in ways carefully delimited by the Patriarchy. But a new struggle for liberation of women is underway worldwide in the dawn of the 21st century. The totality of relations between men and women is in change. The recent conquest of fertility control by women, which transferred ancestral male powers to them, and the decline of the Patriarchy are substantially modifying control of territory previously under male authority. The 2 revolutions are slowly but inexorably changing the social landscape. The feminization of poverty is of interest in this context. Women, 52% of the population, sow over half of food corps, account for 35% of the paid labor force and 60% of the hours worked, but receive only 10% of the income and possess only 1% of the world's property. Changes are occurring in the compulsively masculine culture, as well. A new consciousness and new intuitive knowledge of reality and its multiple cycles of change is emerging in which the individual is more satisfactorily related to the totality of the cosmos. Women in increasing numbers are freeing themselves of the known ways of the past which exalted the rational and mental to a new way which acknowledges the physical. In theology, the gods are beginning to appear as they were: true projections of the societies and structures of their times. Male theologians who reflect on these gods are always patriarchal because the church separates them from the world of women. They have been incapable as yet of comprehending the struggle of women who are opposing the world's oldest colonialism. For the same reasons they have been incapable of recognizing or accepting a fuller reality of existence and the divine. The prophetic female voice is still scarcely audible in an ecclesiastical world that remains enclosed in patriarch.^ieng

[Negotiating safer sex]. / Negociando el sexo mas seguro.

PIP: Women have generally assumed responsibility for contraception since the appearance of oral contraceptives and IUDs. But AIDS prevention programs are now asking women to assume responsibility for safer sex through use of condoms, a male method. Women are being asked to carry condoms, to negotiate their use each time they have sex, and to insist if the partner resists. The problem with this strategy is that frequently it is the male partner who makes sexual decisions, and women have less negotiating power. Women are considered feminine if they assume a passive role in sexual activity. This work suggests strategies to improve the negotiating power of women. Options and problems of speaking about safer sex vary in accordance with the nature of the relationship. A woman with a new partner can try to ascertain his sexual history, but may gain no information on his probable health even if he tells her the truth. It may be easier to convince him to use a condom at least in the beginning of the romance. Women working in the sex industry often have greater trouble convincing their friends and lovers to use a condom than their clients. Some family planning workers have begun to speak of safer sex with all their clients. Role playing and workshops or discussions with small groups of women having similar problems may help women overcome their reticence about discussing sexual topics. Some general suggestions to help women negotiate safer sex include choosing an opportune moment and planning in advance what to say; daring to speak directly without beating around the bush (the partner may also be gathering courage to speak); practicing placing condoms on objects and if necessary placing one on the partner without speaking; being honest with the partner about sex, love, and fidelity; and remembering that protection from condoms is mutual given that it is not possible to know who is infected. Until now, programs to help women practice safer sex have concentrated on sex industry workers or family planning clients. Adolescents are a particularly vulnerable group because of their usual lack of knowledge when the initiate their sex lives. Some sex education classes are beginning to include materials instructing young girls in how to negotiate with boys seeking sexual favors. Printed materials such as simple pamphlets made available by family planning programs to young people can help to raise the topics of HIV infection and safer sex. Greater societal awareness of the problem and improvements in the opportunities for women to exercise their basic rights will be needed to ensure all women the power to protect their own health.^ieng

[How to teach human sexuality?]. / Como educar la sexualidad humana?

PIP: 3 small scale sex education programs developed in recent years by nongovernmental organizations in Chile are described. In 1 case, PAESMI cooperated with the Organization of American States to develop a sex education program for schools in the municipality of Estacion Central. The 1st phase involved training of 40 teacher-monitors who attended a 3-day workshop during the 1988 summer vacation. They later served as instructors for the remaining teachers in the 12 participating schools. Saturday workshops were held over 4 months to familiarize teachers with the program and its objectives. No specific curriculum was established; teachers were to introduce the topics at their discretion into the existing program. A methodological guide was prepared for preschool and primary children in 1988, and in 1989 the program was extended to older children. The majority of participating teachers were enthusiastic, but at present the Biomedical Extension Center of the University of Chile is teaching a course on foundations for human sexuality for educators. It provides teachers with an improved factual basis to complement the stress on attitudes and ethics of the earlier course. A segment of the original course dealing with attitudes toward pornography is included. The 2nd program was a 10-session workshop organized by 4 psychologists, 2 teachers, and a midwife belonging to the Father Andre Jarlan Center for Research and Action in People's Health (CIASPO) for students in 4 intermediate schools in the commune of Santiago. The objective of CIASPO, a nongovernmental organization founded in 1985, is to provide sex education from a multidisciplinary perspective to enable students to assume responsibility for their own sexuality and improve attitudes. The workshop stressed the importance of the body, sentiments, and emotions, examined culture and sex roles, and contraceptive methods. A preworkshop evaluation questionnaire indicated that the participants had a deficient knowledge of sexuality. Workshop organizers emphasized the need for support from school authorities in implementing sex education programs. The final sex education initiative consisted of a mental health program developed by a group of professional women who worked with lower class urban women. The Center for Development of Women (DOMOS) began its work in the area of female sexuality, but by 1987 had become specialized in the mental health of women. DOMOS has a program of shortterm individual psychotherapy and a program of preventive education consisting of workshops on different themes lasting 4-12 weeks each. A sexuality workshop was held to help participants understand their sexuality as a natural function and an important part of human life.^ieng

Between hearth and labor market: the recruitment of peasant women in the Andes.

PIP: To cover subsistence requirements, peasant women from the Peruvian Andes increasingly are being forced to engage in income-generating activities, including domestic service, marketing, manufacturing, and herding. In many cases, recruitment into waged labor involves migration from rural communities. Case studies of the placement of peasant women in external labor markets illustrate the complex micro- and macro-level factors that determine the mix of productive and reproductive labor. The sexual division of labor in the domestic economy and community is the critical in regulating the length of absence of peasant women from the home, the types of jobs taken, and the migratory destination. In 1 such case study, 56 women from the village of Kallarayan (all of whom had migrated at some point) were interviewed during 13 months of fieldwork in 1984-85. There is no paid employment in Kallarayan, so 14% of the village's population is involved in migration to urban areas or commercial agricultural areas in jungle valleys at any point. Male migration is high in the 11-40-year age group, but becomes seasonal once men marry. Female migrants tend to remain away from the village for longer periods, but are almost exclusively single. Recruitment of peasant women into paid labor is achieved by 5 types of agents: family, godparents and friends, authority figures, recruiting agents, and employers. Peasant girls under 15 years of age tend to be allocated to external labor markets (largely domestic services) by parents and godparents; after 15 years, however, when children are considered to reach adulthood, there is a shift toward self-motivated migration or recruitment by employers and agents. The eldest daughter typically enters migration at age 14 years and sacrifices her education, while younger siblings remain in the home longer. In all but the poorest families, female migration for waged labor ends with marriage.^ieng

Act reforming the Civil Code, 17 August 1989. [Selected provisions].

PIP: Ecuador's Act reforming the Civil Code, August 17, 1989, covers filiation, marriage, termination of marriage, the status of married women, marital property, marriage contracts, and parent-child relations. Filiation can now be established by being born to a couple living in a non-marital, stable, monogamous, and legally recognized relationship. Marriage is no longer defined as indissoluble and life-long. A marriage cannot be nullified after two years of its celebration or the time when the grounds for nullification were discovered except when the ground is incest or bigamy. There is a 300-day waiting period for remarriage after divorce when the woman does not prove she is not pregnant or her future husband does not certify that he will recognize as his any child to whom she gives birth. Grave injuries or a hostile attitude may individually provide grounds for divorce. Voluntary and unjustified abandonment for more than one year continuously is now grounds for divorce; abandonment lasting more than three years gives either party grounds for divorce. Language providing that a husband must protect his wife and the wife be obedient to her husband is replaced with language providing that marriage is based on the equality of rights and duties of both spouses. Language providing that the husband has a right to have the wife live with and follow him is replaced with language providing that the spouses shall establish their residence by common agreement. Either spouse, rather than just the husband, may now manage the community property; the marriage certificate is to specify which spouse will ordinarily manage the community property. Language providing that children owe more duty and respect to their father than their mother is now sex-neutral. Both parents, rather than just the father, now have the right and the duty to direct the children's education. Provisions of the Code relating to parental authority are amended to make them refer to both parents, rather than just the father.^ieng

The need for a reproductive health framework: a response to Fred Sai's paper.

PIP: A reproductive health framework is needed which recognizes that sexuality, reproduction and motherhood are not the exclusive interest of women, but a basic need of society as a whole. Although recent attention to maternal mortality has begun to widen the understanding of the need for a reproductive health approach, political commitment to implement such a program is lacking. Society continues to impose on women the multiple duty of having sex for their partner's enjoyment, producing children for the family and society, and breastfeeding and caring for babies' health and development. In the utilization of women's health care activities, women need to become the final aim of the actions taken rather than the means of achieving other goals. Reproductive health care should begin infancy with no differences between boys and girls to ensure a biologically, psychologically and socially healthy child. Furthermore, appropriate social and psychological conditions for successful pregnancy, delivery and child care should be available to women. Sexual education promoting knowledge and acceptance of the role of sexuality in society is needed. Awareness and accessibility of contraceptive choices and abortion are also needed. Society desires the healthy physical and psychological development of each individual, and so should make the necessary adaptions to share the responsibility of the reproductive function.^ieng

[Toward safe motherhood: a call for action]. / Hacia una maternidad segura. Un llamado a la accion.

PIP: The most shocking fact about maternal health today is the difference between maternal mortality rates in developed and developing countries. In developed countries, mortality risks range from 1/4000 to 1/10,000, but in developing countries the risk may be 1/15 to 1/50. Most countries with high maternal mortality rates have inadequate vital registration systems. The magnitude of the maternal mortality problem was unknown until recently, when reliable statistics from Asia, Africa, and Latin America became available. Discrimination against females in education, nutrition, and other aspects of life is a more or less direct cause of maternal mortality. Maternal deaths often have their roots in the life of the woman before the pregnancy or even before the woman's birth. Persistent deficiencies of calcium, vitamin D, or iron may result in a constricted pelvis, eventually leading to death during labor. Chronic anemia may lead to death from hemorrhage. Risks resulting from adolescent pregnancy, maternal exhaustion due to closely spaced births and heavy physical labor during the reproductive years, procreation after age 35 and especially after age 40, and illegal induced abortion are all factors in high maternal mortality rates in developing countries. The only hope of providing access to essential maternal health services, family planning, and especially obstetrical services for life threatening emergencies to poor women living in remote areas is through primary health care. Local health care cannot exist in a vacuum; technical and administrative help is required from municipal centers. Fewer than 50% of the world's women receive trained care during deliveries. The consequences of unregulated fertility are particularly important as a determinant of maternal mortality. The World Health Organization family planning policy is based on recognition of family planning as an inseparable part of maternal and child health care. Longterm economic and social development and elimination of female illiteracy are other parts of the multiple strategy of controlling maternal mortality. 4 steps are essential in strategies to control maternal mortality: 1) providing adequate health and nutrition services for girls and family planning services for women 2) providing good prenatal nutrition and health care and identifying high risk women early in the pregnancy 3) assuring professional attention for all deliveries, and 4) providing access to obstetrical care for high risk deliveries and obstetrical emergencies. Some of the needed resources to make childbearing safer already exist in each country and can be strengthened by cooperative efforts between national and local governments, international assistance agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and families and communities of each region.^ieng

The incorporation of Mexican women in seasonal migration: a study of gender differences.

"This article compares sex differences in migratory behaviors, work patterns and conjugal relations in a cohort of male and female immigrants who move seasonally between Mexico and the United States. Gender comparisons are made using survey data and information from in-depth group interviews. The findings indicate that among Mexicans immigration to the United States reinstates men's traditional roles as providers while making women assume non-traditional roles. Female role expansion, through employment in the U.S., strongly influences conjugal relations in the direction of more equality. In contrast, failure to enter the American labor force implies a role restriction resulting in a loss of autonomy for many immigrant women." (SUMMARY IN SPA)

[Attitudes of Costa Rican students and teachers on sex and population education]. / Actitudes de los estudiantes y docentes costarricenses frente al sexo y la educacion demografica.

PIP: Students in 34 secondary schools and the last year of primary school throughout Costa Rica were interviewed to determine the attitudes of older students toward sex and population education. The sex, grade level, and geographic region of residence were considered key study variables. To ensure an adequate number of cases in each geographic region, the sample was stratified into 4 zones: downtown San Jose, the rest of metropolitan San Jose, other cantons of the central valley, and cantons outside the central valley. Various smaller studies were also conducted, including brief intelligence tests for 190 students, interviews with 286 parents, focus group debates in 8 schools, surveys of 10 teachers in each school, and interviews with Ministry of Education and other officials. The final questionnaire was very long, consisting of 281 questions as well as data about the student's residence. Although students cooperated in filling out the questionnaires, it was too long and 27% of all students failed to complete it. The average student completed 91% of the questions, but fewer than 1/2 of the 6th year primary students were able to complete it. Costa Rican students gain at least a partial understanding of sex at an early age. Almost all secondary students and 71% of the 6th year primary students knew 1 or more contraceptive methods. Most acquired contraceptive information before the age of 12, often from the mass media. 2/3 said their parents had been important sources of information on sex. Most students said they had received some information on sex or family planning in school, but no influence was seen on knowledge or attitudes. The survey results revealed considerable misinformation about sex and family planning. The attitude of Costa Rican students toward equality of the sexes appears conservative, but it becomes less so as their grade level advances, especially for girls. The majority of students had tolerant or indifferent attitudes toward premarital fertility, the ideal age at marriage, and having 1 or 2 children beyond their ideal average of 2 or 3 children. The 173 out-of-school youths who completed the surveys were even more family oriented and conservative and less well informed about family planning and demographic growth than were the students. Grade level was the most important factor explaining differences in knowledge and attitude toward the issues raised in the survey. Geographic region and socioeconomic level of the parents and much less influence. Special questionnaires administered to 327 teachers in the same secondary schools revealed that they assigned the highest priority to sex education of 8 possible educational innovations. Most teachers assigned a lower priority to population education. Major conclusions of the study were that Costa Rican students would welcome a more systematic program of sex education, but greater attention is required to train teachers in the method and content of sex education and population education.^ieng

Brazilian women in politics.

PIP: Women are gradually gaining influence in Brazilian politics, especially since recent advances in the women's movement, but they still play a limited role. There have been journals devoted to feminism and some notable feminists since 1850. In 1932 suffragettes in Brazil gained women the right to vote. Women's associations burgeoned in the 1940s and 1950s, culminating in a peak in number of women in national elected positions in 1965. A repressive military regime reversed the process, which resumed in 1975. 1975 was also significant for the Brazilian women's movement because of the U.N. Women's Year. Several large, influential feminist political action groups were formed, typically by upper class women with leftist views, although some church and union groups from lower classes also appeared. In 1979-1981, the coherence of these groups fell into schism and fragmentation, because of disagreements over the feminist political doctrines and roles, views on legality of abortion, and special interest groups such as lesbians. Another bitter dispute is opposition by leftist women to BEMFAM, the Brazilian Society of Family Welfare, which provides family planning for the poor: leftists oppose BEMFAM because it is supported by funds from "imperialist" countries such as the U.S. There are several types of feminists groups: those that emphasize health, sexuality and violence; those composed of lesbians; those originating from lower classes and unions; publicly instituted organizations. Brazilian law forbids discrimination against women holding public office, but in reality very few women actually do hold office, except for mayors of small towns and a few administrators of the Education and Social Security ministries. Political office in Brazil is gained by clientism, and since women rarely hold powerful positions in business, they are outsiders of the system. Brazilian women have achieved much, considering the low female literacy rate and traditional power system, but their equality continues to be a major challenge.^ieng

Women and development in Northern Belize.

PIP: Northern Belize, composed of Orange Walk and Corozal districts, is the sugar-producing region of Belize, a newly independent country on the Caribbean coast of Central America, and because of the extensive involvement in the modern sugar industry, existing status differentials in Orange Walk have increased. Town farmers have increased their sugarcane license sizes more than villagers and also are much more likely to meet or exceed their delivery quotas than villagers. There has been the differentiation of a new middle socioeconomic stratum in Orange Walk, with a much higher proportion of villagers remaining in the lower stratum than townspeople. With greater involvement in the market economy, there has been a decline in the social integration of groups in the district as well as less symbiosis between husband and wife and among related male age mates. Some people now consistently work for others; there was an egalitarian labor exchange before. With the decline in subsistence production, the extensive reciprocity in food among related women diminishes. Women have participated in the overall changes in Orange Walk, yet their position vis-a-vis men has become weaker. Women are most likely to hold licenses in the communities that participated earliest in the sugar industry and that are the most traditional. With greater market involvement, women become less likely to hold licenses. Women's licenses have not increased to the same degree as those of men. And, with the income from sugar and wage labor, the family income is more and more viewed as belonging to men, rather than being the result of a joint family enterprise. Women become dependent on what men give them, with less control and security. With declining subsistence production, women have a reduced basis of involvement in traditional reciprocal food exchanges with other households. They lose some independent sources of money income with the result of increasing undernutrition for young children. The economic developments with the sugar industry reinforced the traditional sexual division of labor and enhanced the position of men; it undermined sources of economic security controlled by women. The holding of sugarcane licenses by women is not the base it might be, since women do not engage in the actual production themselves. Women have responded by increasing their sexuality and childbearing to influence their men and by closer bonds with their children for old age security. New bases for women have appeared, but in small numbers, such as school teaching and office work. Since the population is growing more rapidly than the creation of new employment, this is not a widely available option. Prospects for the future involve further manifestations of the processes already examined.^ieng

Women in migration.

PIP: This special issue reflects the belated but growing scholarly appreciation of the specificity and importance of women in migration. Aside from the sheer numerical significance of female migration documented in this issue, women migrants encounter problems and make special contributions which render comprehension of their specificity critical to an understanding of international migration in general. In an introductory essay, Morokvasic surveys the state of knowledge concerning women in migration. The focus then shifts, in Part II, to regional and national case studies which collectively elucidate the multifaceted dimensions of the women in migration research issue through time and space. In Part III, an international comparison of female immigrants and their labor market characteristics reveals striking similarities but also important differences. The US Canada and Australia can be discretely compared through 5 census-based quantitative analyses. The role of migrant women in the labor market is also the theme of Part IV. But the 5 studies comprising this section are based on survey research or on discernible global trends in migration and employment. Part V is devoted to the theme of female rural to urban migration in the Third World.^ieng

[Sex education and the problem of early sexual relations among adolescents]. / La educacion sexual frente al problema de las relaciones sexuales precoces en los adolescentes.

PIP: Puberty today occurs about 2 years earlier than it did at the beginning of the century. The age of menarche is now usually between 11-13 years, while the establishment of spermatogenesis and appearance of the 1st ejaculation usually occurs between 13-15 years. The ages at which adolescents feel mature, want to behave like adults, and initiate sexual activity are now lower than in the past. Sexual relations may occur between adolescents before they are fully capable of recognizing their consequences as autonomous and responsible acts guided by a system of moral convictions. Both marriage and parenthood may have unfavorable consequences for future personality development, sexual adjustment, and the personal-social adaptation of the individual. In Cuba, the persistence of traces of bourgeois mentality can be seen in the tendency to teach young girls false concepts of female behavior. Traits such as submissiveness, passivity, and fragility are stressed, and girls are taught to inhibit their sexuality from a very young age. Adolescent boys are expected to display virility and machismo. Adolescent boys may be so interested in the physical aspects of sexual activity that they deprecate the aspects, considering them to be weak female traits. Boys are more likely to separate the sexual object and the love object, while such duality is unusual in girls. Among the most serious problems of adolescent sexual activity in Cuba is a high rate of abortions among young adolescents. Some adolescents are promiscuous and have frequent changes of partner. The age group 15-19 years has the 3rd highest rate of syphilis and the 2nd highest of gonorrhea. The proportion of births to minors has increased from 22% in 1973 to almost half in some provinces. Divorce rates have been in constant increase in Cuba, and psychosocial immaturity of very young spouses is a principal factor in divorce. The widening temporal gap between attainment of puberty and marriage, which is likely to be postponed until the completion of ever more time-consuming educations, is a factor in increased premarital sex although it is not a determinant of it. An adequate sex education program would help adolescents develop responsible attitudes and good foundations for their future sexual adjustments. It would also help prevent adolescent pregnancy, with its frequent negative consequences.^ieng