Prevalence and risk factors for micronutrient deficiencies during pregnancy in Cayenne, French Guiana.

BACKGROUND: Involved in physical and brain development, immunity and metabolism, micronutrients have profound health effects. The nutritional status of pregnant women is a major determinant of foetal health. French Guiana has a rapid population growth. Social inequalities, cultural practices and gastrointestinal nematode infections in French Guiana could affect the prevalence of these deficiencies. The main objective of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of micronutrient deficiency among pregnant women in French Guiana. The secondary objective was to identify socio-demographic, dietary, obstetrical and neonatal risk factors associated with deficiencies. METHODS: Pregnant women over 22 weeks of pregnancy hospitalized for delivery at the Obstetrical Emergency Department of the Hospital Center in Cayenne from May 2018 to March 2019 were included. A socio-demographic and food questionnaire was administered. Medical data were collected from the medical records. Blood and urine samples were taken. The descriptive analysis used Student and chi-squared tests. RESULTS: A total of 341 women were included. The majority were born in Haiti (39%) and French Guiana (34%). At least one micronutrient deficiency was observed in 81% of women. Precarious women had a significantly greater risk of micronutrient deficiency during pregnancy compared to those with both normal and complementary health insurance. CONCLUSIONS: Micronutrient deficiencies in pregnant women in French Guiana are a public health problem, a fact that was previously overlooked in the context of rising obesity. With over half the women overweight or obese, and 81% with at least 1 micronutrient deficiency, balanced nutrition should be a major focus.

Bases teórico-conceptuales para el análisis de inequidades sociales en salud: una discusión / Theoretical Implications for the Analysis of Social Health Inequalities: A Discussion

RESUMEN Las Inequidades Sociales en Salud (ISS) continúan representando un gran reto para la salud pública en los diferentes países del mundo. Por su parte, el estudio, análisis y generación de conocimiento en esta materia ha sido reconocida como prioritaria para la Organización Mundial de la Salud desde 1991. La investigación de las ISS debe basarse en fundamentos teóricos y conceptuales sólidos, pues son estos las que guiarán las decisiones metodológicas en términos de diseño de investigaciones, formulación de intervenciones y políticas públicas en salud. En Latinoamérica, los estudios realizados se han basado primordialmente en experiencias que se han llevado a cabo en países industrializados. Esto ha fomentado que el análisis de las ISS reproduzca posturas teóricas y metodologías, sin necesariamente presentar una perspectiva crítica de los posibles estratificadores sociales que aproximan de la mejor forma los determinantes sociales de la salud en los contextos particulares. Por esta razón, se expone que las aproximaciones teórico-metodológicas deben ajustarse a los contextos específicos de los países; que la estratificación social de la salud debe ser evaluada de forma prioritaria; que los determinantes de la salud individuales y estructurales deben ser considerados dentro de las mediciones; y que la justificación teórica de las decisiones metodológicas realizadas en los estudios y las medidas seleccionadas deben ser explícitas y responder a hipótesis concretas. Esto con el fin de proveer un análisis crítico y herramientas útiles tanto para la investigación como para la toma de decisiones en salud. Este estudio inicia con una síntesis de los principales antecedentes históricos que han permitido la evolución del concepto de ISS. Seguidamente, se presentan los principales conceptos subyacentes relativos a la definición de ISS (determinantes sociales, equidad, justicia, estratificación y gradiente social en salud) y cómo estos deben guiar las decisiones prácticas y metodológicas. Finalmente, se concluye con algunas recomendaciones para la generación de esta evidencia científica para Latinoamérica.

ABSTRACT Social health inequalities (or inequities) continue to represent a great challenge for public health research worldwide. Since 1991, the World Health Organization established that the study and analysis of health inequalities represented a priority for all countries. To better guide methodological and practical implications of health inequalities, research on this topic should present a solid theoretical model, able to impact future public health policies. Previous studies of health inequalities in Latin America are often inspired from abroad experiences, encouraging the reproduction of mainly European theoretical positions and methodologies. However, especially when it comes to this topic, it is known the important role of the social context and culture, playing an important role in promoting differences in health outcomes. From this perspective, to operationalize the different social determinants in health, a critical perspective and thoughtful analysis of the context is mandatory. In order to provide a critical analysis and useful tools for both research and health decision making, we recommend that the theoretical and methodological approaches used in social health inequalities research must be well adapted to the specific contexts; that health social stratification must be assessed as a priority; that individual and the wider health determinants must be well characterized; and that the theoretical justification of the methodological decisions made in the studies and the selected measures must be explicit and should answer specific hypotheses. This research provides a brief historical background, to share the basis for the conceptual evolution of social health inequalities; the main underlying concepts related to the definition of health inequalities (social determinants, equity, justice, stratification and social gradient in health); and some recommendations for the future perspectives of health inequalities research in Latin America.

¿Cómo medir la posición socioeconómica en el marco de las inequidades sociales de salud?: El caso de Costa Rica / Measuring Socioeconomic Position From The Social Inequalities In Health Perspective?: The Case of Costa Rica

RESUMEN Introducción: La medición de la posición socioeconómica (PSE) es central para el análisis de las inequidades sociales en salud (ISS) y requiere de instrumentos actualizados, adaptados a un marco conceptual de referencia, al contexto local y a las características de las poblaciones. El objetivo de este estudio es presentar y discutir, a la luz de la literatura internacional, las ventajas y desventajas de las diferentes formas de medición de la posición socioeconómica para el análisis de las ISS que existen en Costa Rica. Materiales y métodos: Se realizó una revisión sistemática de los instrumentos y métodos existentes en Costa Rica para la medición de las ISS. Resultados: Se encontró que en Costa Rica existe una gran diversidad de instrumentos a nivel individual o geográfico que permiten medir la posición socioeconómica en el marco de las ISS. Cada proxy de la PSE se desarrolla en función de un marco conceptual de referencia, y se debe adaptar al diseño del estudio, a las características de la población de estudio (e.g. edad) y de la factibilidad de la recolección de los datos. Sin embargo, debido a la gran diversidad de variables y marcos conceptuales existentes sobre la PSE, no es posible establecer la existencia de un patrón de oro para la medición de las ISS aplicable a todos los estudios. Conclusión: Esta revisión de la literatura costarricense a la luz de la literatura internacional, podría contribuir a un mejor uso de las herramientas existentes. Permitirá a los investigadores escoger los instrumentos más adaptados al contexto local que han sido validados previamente, los marcos teóricos respectivos que existen detrás de cada medición, y sus eventuales limitaciones.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Measuring socioeconomic position (SEP) is central in the analysis of social inequalities in health (SIH). It requires the use of updated instruments, adapted to a particular conceptual framework, taking into account the local context and the population characteristics. This study aims to present and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different measurement of SEP used in Costa Rica for the analysis of health inequalities. Materials and methods: A systematic review of the existing instruments and methods used to characterize SEP in Costa Rica was carried out. Results: There is a great diversity of instruments used as proxies of SEP in Costa Rica, both at the individual, and at geographical level. These measures allow to capture specific dimensions of SEP potentially associated with different health outcomes. Being a latent concept, variables approaching SEP should refer to their specific conceptual framework, be adapted to the study design, and population's characteristics (e.g. age), and should consider the study feasibility of data collection. Due to the variety and different conceptual frameworks behind each SEP variable, it is not possible to establish the existence of a gold standard. Conclusion: This review of the Costa Rican health inequalities literature regarding SEP instruments, can contribute to a better use of the existing tools. It will allow researchers to better evaluate the instruments that have been previously validated, their respective theoretical frameworks and limitations, to choose the most suitable proxy of SEP for the local context analyzed.

Socioeconomic inequalities in survival of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia insured by social security in Mexico: a study of the 2007-2009 cohorts.

BACKGROUND: Although acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) 5 years survival in minors has reached 90%, socioeconomic differences have been reported among and within countries. Within countries, the difference has been related to the socioeconomic status of the parents, even in the context of public health services with universal coverage. In Mexico, differences in the mortality of children with cancer have been reported among sociodemographic zones. The Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), the country's main social security institution, has reported socioeconomic differences in life expectancy within its affiliated population. Here, the socioeconomic inequalities in the survival of children (< 15 years old) enrolled in the IMSS were analyzed. METHODS: Five-year survival data were analyzed in cohorts of patients diagnosed with ALL during the period 2007-2009 in the two IMSS networks of medical services that serve 7 states of the central region of Mexico. A Cox proportional risk model was developed and adjusted for the socioeconomic characteristics of family, community of residence and for the clinical characteristics of the children. The slope of socioeconomic inequality of the probability of dying within five years after the diagnosis of ALL was estimated. RESULTS: For the 294 patients studied, the 5 years survival rate was 53.7%; the median survival was 4.06 years (4.9 years for standard-risk diagnosis; 2.5 years for high-risk diagnosis). The attrition rate was 12%. The Cox model showed that children who had been IMSS-insured for less than half their lives had more than double the risk of dying than those who had been insured for their entire lives. CONCLUSIONS: We did not find evidence of socioeconomic inequalities in the survival of children with ALL associated with family income, educational and occupational level of parents. However, we found a relevant gradient related social security protection: the longer children's life insured by social security, the higher their probability of surviving ALL was. These results add evidence of the effectiveness of social security, as a mechanism of wealth redistribution and a promoter of social mobility. Extending these social security benefits to the entire Mexican population could promote better health outcomes.

What Factors Explain Bicycling and Walking for Commuting by ELSA-Brasil Participants?

PURPOSE: To analyze the factors associated with commuting by bicycling and walking in adult participants from ELSA-Brasil (Longitudinal Study of Adult Health). DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Six teaching/research institutions throughout Brazil. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 15 105 civil servants. MEASURES: Commuting by bicycling and walking was analyzed using the long-form International Physical Activity Questionnaire. ANALYSIS: A hierarchical model containing possible factors associated with commuting by bicycling and walking was constructed. Crude and adjusted odds ratios were calculated using multinomial logistic regression. RESULTS: Considering the 2 forms of commuting, 66% of the participants were being considered inactive or insufficiently active. In women, being "heavier," feeling unsafe practicing physical activity, and being a former smoker were factors negatively associated with commuting by bicycling and walking. In men, active commuting was less common among those who were overweight or had abdominal obesity, those with a negative perception of safety, and those reporting that there was nowhere suitable in the neighborhood to practice physical activity. CONCLUSION: Obesity and negative perceptions in the neighborhood are associated with inactive or insufficiently active commuting. The relevance of this finding for public health is reinforce developing policies aimed at promoting health in Brazil and in other countries with similar characteristics.

Epidemiologia da hanseníase na Paraíba e sua relação com a cobertura da atenção primária à saúde e condições socioeconômicas / Epidemiology of leprosy in Paraíba and its relationship with the coverage of primary health care and socioeconomic conditions

A hanseníase é uma doença curável, de elevada transcendência devido às incapacidades físicas oriundas do problema não tratado. Permanece como problema de saúde pública em vários países. Determinada socialmente, ultrapassa as barreiras biológicas, sendo fundamental compreender sua ocorrência nos diferentes contextos. O objetivo deste estudo é analisar a epidemiologia da hanseníase e sua relação com a cobertura da Atenção Primária à Saúde e as condições socioeconômicas na Paraíba, no período de 2001 a 2016. Estudo ecológico misto de múltiplos grupos e de séries temporais que tem os municípios como unidade de análise. Utilizaram-se dados de hanseníase do Sistema de Informação de Agravos de Notificação. Foi realizada análise de tendência por regressão linear generalizada pelo método de Prais-Winsten dos indicadores: taxa de detecção anual de casos novos de hanseníase na população geral e em menores de 15 anos; taxa e proporção de casos diagnosticados com grau 2 de incapacidade física. Analisou-se a distribuição espacial do risco para o adoecimento de hanseníase, por meio de um índice composto de indicadores epidemiológicos que classificou os municípios em alto, médio, baixo e muito baixo risco. Verificou-se a relação da cobertura da Atenção Primária à Saúde e do Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal com os indicadores epidemiológicos da hanseníase pela regressão de Poisson com inflação de zeros. Foram analisados 12.134 casos novos de hanseníase. Observou-se na Paraíba tendência decrescente para a taxa de detecção geral (-4,8%), em menores de 15 anos (-6,7%) e estacionária para a taxa (-2,1%) e proporção (2,7%) de casos diagnosticados com grau 2 de incapacidade física. Ressalta-se que a tendência desses indicadores é heterogênea entre as macrorregiões de saúde do estado, apenas a quarta macrorregião apresenta redução na magnitude da endemia. A distribuição espacial é dessemelhante no território paraibano, apresenta clusters de alto risco nas regiões leste e oeste do estado. O aumento da cobertura da Estratégia de Saúde da Família contribuiu significativamente para incremento na taxa de detecção na população geral, mas não apresentou relação com a detecção em menores de 15 anos e taxa de grau 2 de incapacidade física. A melhora do Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal contribuiu para aumento de casos da doença na população geral e redução em menores de 15 anos. A hanseníase apresenta-se em declínio na Paraíba, contudo evidencia-se que diagnósticos ocorrem tardiamente e a transmissão permanece ativa. Embora tenha ocorrido aumento na cobertura dos serviços de saúde e dos Índices de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal, e isso tenha influenciado na melhoria dos indicadores epidemiológicos da hanseníase, persistem situações de pobreza e desigualdades municipais e estas contribuem para permanência da hanseníase. Reforça-se a importância de investimentos nas ações de saúde e políticas inclusivas, com vistas a minimizar as iniquidades existentes e consequentemente controlar a endemia.(AU)

Resumo em língua estrangeira Leprosy is a curable disease of high significance, given to physical disabilities from the untreated problem. It remains a public health problem in several countries. Socially determined, it overcomes the biological barriers, being fundamental to understand its occurrence in different contexts. The aim of this study is to assess the epidemiology of leprosy and its relationship with the coverage of Primary Health Care and socio-economic conditions in the State of Paraiba, in the period from 2001 to 2016. This mixed ecological study of multiple groups and time series has the municipalities as unit of analysis. Leprosy data were used and of the System of Information of Reportable Diseases. Trend analysis was performed by generalized linear regression by the Prais Winsten indicators: annual detection rate of new cases of leprosy in the general population and in children under 15; rate and proportion of cases diagnosed with grade 2 physical disability. We analyzed the spatial distribution of risk for illness by leprosy, through an index formed by epidemiological indicators that ranked the municipalities in high, medium, low, and very low risk. It was found that the ratio of the coverage of Primary Health Care and Municipal Human Development Index with the leprosy epidemiological indicators for Poisson regression with zeros inflation. There were analyzed 12,134 new cases of leprosy. It was observed in Paraiba downward trend for overall detection rate (-4.8%), in children under 15 (-6.7%) and stationary for rate (-2.1%) and proportion (2.7%) of cases diagnosed with grade 2 of physical disability. It should be noted that the trend of these indicators is heterogeneous among the macro-regions of health in the State, only the fourth macro-region presents reduced magnitude of endemy. The spatial distribution is different in the State of Paraiba territory; it presents high-risk clusters in the Eastern and Western regions of the State with time reduction in the Western region. The increase in the coverage of the Family Health Strategy has contributed significantly to increase the detection rate in the general population, but did not show relationship with the detection in children under 15 and grade rate 2 of disability. The improvement of the Municipal Human Development Index contributed to increased cases of the disease in the general population and reduction in children under 15. Leprosy presents itself in decline in Paraiba; however, it is evidenced that diagnoses occur late and the transmission remains active. Although there has been an increase in the coverage of health services and Municipal Human Development Indexes, and this has influenced the improvement of leprosy epidemiological indicators, poverty and municipal inequalities persist, and these contribute to permanence of leprosy. It reinforces the importance of investments in health actions and inclusion policies, in order to minimize existing inequalities and consequently to control the endemy.(AU)

Desigualdades sociais, políticas de saúde e formação de médicos, enfermeiros e dentistas no Brasil e em Portugal / Social inequality, health policies and the training of physicians, nurses and dentists in Brazil and in Portugal

ResumoO estudo analisa a produção do conhecimento científico sobre desigualdades sociais em saúde e discute sua relação com as políticas de formação de dentistas, enfermeiros e médicos no Brasil e em Portugal. Foram identificados documentos publicados em Português, Francês, Inglês e Espanhol, entre janeiro de 2000 e dezembro de 2012, por meio da combinação de levantamento em bases de dados eletrônicas, manual e intencional da literatura cinzenta. Foram selecionados 53 documentos de um total de 1652. Os resultados mostram escassez de conhecimento para permitir a avaliação das políticas de formação de recursos humanos em saúde em geral e aquelas relativas a médicos, enfermeiros e dentistas, em particular. No Brasil, ainda são poucos os estudos que procuram entender como essa formação pode contribuir para a diminuição das desigualdades e, para Portugal, não encontramos estudos que estabeleçam uma relação direta entre a formação de recursos humanos e um eventual papel que esses poderão desempenhar no combate às desigualdades. Apesar de um grande aumento na produção científica, muitas lacunas persistem nesse campo. A produção de conhecimento e sua relação com a tomada de decisão parecem ainda ser processos separados nos dois países.

AbstractThis study analyzes the production of scientific knowledge on Health Inequalities (HI) and its use in policies of education of dentists, nurses and physicians in Brazil and Portugal. Documents published between January 2000 and December 2001, in Portuguese, French, English and Spanish, were identified by means of a combination of a manual and intentional electronic database survey of the grey literature. Fifty-three documents were selected from a total of 1,652. The findings revealed that there is still little knowledge available to enable an assessment of policies for human resource training in healthcare in general and for those related to physicians, nurses and dentists in particular. In Brazil, few studies have thus far been made to understand how such training can contribute towards reducing these inequalities and, in the case of Portugal, no studies were found that established a direct relationship between human resource training and the future role that these could play in combating inequality. Despite a vast increase in scientific production, many lacunae still exist in this field. Knowledge production and its relationship with decision-making still seem to be separate processes in these two countries.

La perspectiva de género como una apertura conceptual y metodológica en salud pública / Gender approach as a conceptual and methodological opening in public health

La perspectiva de género propone y permite el análisis profundo de las relaciones sociales entre hombres y mujeres, con el fin de esclarecer las diferencias e inequidades en salud que están vinculadas al género. En el presente artículo se recorren aproximaciones teóricas y conceptuales que se han ido vinculando a la perspectiva de género para generar conocimiento, y entre las que se encuentran el marco conceptual de los determinantes de las desigualdades sociales en salud, la naturalización o esencialización, la masculinidad hegemónica en una sociedad patriarcal y el enfoque relacional de género. Por otra parte, se muestran la impronta de la perspectiva de género en cuestiones metodológicas: en la contextualización y fundamentación del problema de investigación, el diseño, en la selección de la población, la muestra y las variables, y en el análisis de los datos. La salud pública no se ha de conformar con contribuir a desvelar las desigualdades de género, sino que desde sus funciones de promocionar y mantener la salud de las poblaciones, ha de impulsar y colaborar activamente en el principio de igualdad entre mujeres y hombres en todos los niveles de la administración pública.

The gender perspective suggests and allows a deep analysis of social relations between men and women, in order to elucidate the differences and inequalities in gender-linked health. This paper went through theoretical and conceptual approaches that have been related to gender perspective to generate knowledge. Some of them are the conceptual framework of the determinants of social inequalities in health, the naturalization or essentialism, the hegemonic masculinity in a patriarchal society and the relational approach to gender. On the other hand, the impact of gender approach on methodological issues, for example on the conceptualization and justification of the research question, the design, on the selection of the population, the sample and variables and on data analysis, was shown. Public health should go beyond contributing to reveal gender inequalities; it should encourage and actively cooperate through its functions of promotion and preservation of the population's health to keep the principle of equality between women and men at all levels of the public management.

Inquéritos domiciliares de saúde: potencialidades e desafios / Health household surveys: potentials and challenges

É apresentada uma síntese do desenvolvimento das medidas de estado de saúde de populações e do reconhecimento da necessidade de inquéritos populacionais periódicos para a geração dos novos indicadores. Traça-se um breve histórico sobre o desenvolvimento dos inquéritos, apontando conjunturas favoráveis no Brasil para o estabelecimento de uma matriz de diferentes modalidades de inquéritos que passem a integrar de forma consistente o sistema de informação em saúde do país. Destacam-se algumas questões metodológicas relativas aos inquéritos e aponta-se o acúmulo de investimento já feito no país em validação e avaliação de instrumentos e escalas e em desenhos amostrais, entre outros aspectos. É enfatizado que a monitorização da equidade em saúde deve ser uma atribuição central dos inquéritos nacionais, considerando o patamar prevalente de concentração da renda, o que implica um conjunto de definições e escolhas de variáveis e indicadores. Ressalta-se que as linhas de pesquisa relativas aos inquéritos e à sua aplicação na análise das desigualdades em saúde podem constituir espaços significativos para o desenvolvimento de teorias epidemiológicas e de uma prática afinada com o campo da Saúde Coletiva.

Dos temas polémicos en el contexto de la medición de las desigualdades en salud / Two controversial topics in the context of health inequality measurement

El artículo se ocupa de dos temas candentes en el ámbito de la medición de las desigualdades con relación a la salud: uno, la disyuntiva entre la medición total de la desigualdad entre todos los individuos de una población o la medición de la desigualdad asociada a grupos socioeconómicos; el otro, el dilema entre medir desigualdades per se, o desigualdades condicionales al nivel total o promedio de salud de la población. En ambos casos se toma partido por la segunda opción. Se razona críticamente a partir de la literatura reciente sobre el tema y se construyen y analizan varios ejemplos ficticios simples en los que se pone de manifiesto, por un lado, la necesidad de medir desigualdades relativas a grupos socioeconómicos debidamente elegidos y por otro, la llamada “paradoja del suceso raro”, que pone en entredicho muchas de las conclusiones sobre los cambios en los niveles de desigualdad, al margen de los niveles promedio de salud en la población.

This article dealt with two hot topics in the context of health inequality measurement: one is the alternative between total measurement of inequalities among all the individuals in a population or the measurement of inequalities associated to socio-economic groups and the other is the dilemma of measuring inequalities per se or inequalities depending on the total or average health level of the population. In both cases, the second option was supported. There was a critical reasoning on the recent literature published about this topic and additionally, several simple and fictional examples were created and analyzed to show, on one hand, the need of measuring inequalities related to duly selected socioeconomic groups and on the other hand, the so-called "paradox of the awkward success" that questions many of the conclusions about changes in levels of inequality, leaving the average health levels of the population on one side.