The evolution of habitat quality and its response to land use change in the coastal China, 1985-2020.

The coastal region of China is a typical area characterized by a developed economy, yet it faces prominent resource and environmental issues, and it is of great significance to quantitatively assess the ecological effects resulting from rapid urbanization and industrialization. Based on the land use data from 1985 to 2020, and the InVEST modeling and relevant spatial data sources, the paper analyzed the spatial and temporal changes in land use cover and habitat quality in the coastal China over the past 30 years. The results show that: 1) land use cover in the coastal China has changed significantly during the study period, with the area of cultivated land continuing to decrease and construction land expanding; 2) the trend of habitat quality degradation in was obvious, with the area of low-value habitat quality continuing to increase. Spatially, they were mainly located in the three major urban agglomerations undergoing rapid industrialization and urbanization; 3) The average degradation of habitats increased significantly between 1990 and 2000 and 2010-2020. The rate of change in areas with different degradation levels from 1990 to 2000 was higher than in other periods. The low-value areas of habitat degradation are mainly located in hilly and mountainous regions. 4) The transfer of habitat grades was generally characterized by a shift from high grade to low grade. This trend of conversion was due to the large-scale occupation of cultivated land by construction land and the long-term encroachment of ecological land by cultivated land. For future development, it is recommended to improve the land use regulation system based on the principles of sustainable development, with a particular focus on habitat protection. Additionally, efforts should be made to strengthen the development of ecological agriculture, carry out ecological protection and restoration, and improve the mechanisms for coordinating land and sea management.

Montane evergreen forest deforestation for banana plantations decreased soil organic carbon and total nitrogen stores to alarming levels.

Forest conversion to agricultural land has been shown to deplete soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil total nitrogen (STN) stocks. However, research on how soil properties respond to forest conversion to shifting cultivation has produced conflicting results. The conflicting findings suggest that the agricultural system may influence the response of SOC and STN to forest conversion to agriculture, depending on the presence of vegetative cover throughout the year. Due to the unique characteristics of montane evergreen forests (MEF) and banana plantations (BP), SOC and STN response to MEF conversion to BP may differ from existing models. Nevertheless, research on how soil properties are affected by MEF conversion to BP is scarce globally. In order to fill this research gap, the goal of this study was to evaluate how much deforestation for BP affects SOC, STN, and soil quality by analysing these soil parameters in MEF and BP fields down to 1-m depth, using standard profile-based procedures. Contrary to the specified hypothesis that SOC and STN losses would be restricted to the upper 20-cm soil layer, SOC losses were extended to the 40-cm depth layer and STN losses to the 60-cm depth layer. The soils lost 18.56 Mg ha - 1 (37%) of SOC from the upper 20 cm and 33.15 Mg ha - 1 (37%) from the upper 40 cm, following MEF conversion to BP. In terms of STN, the upper 20, 40, and 60 cm lost 2.98 (43%), 6.62 (47%), and 8.30 Mg ha - 1 (44%), respectively. Following MEF conversion to BP, the SOC stratification ratio decreased by 49%, implying a decline in soil quality. Massive exportation of nutrients, reduced C inputs due to complete removal of the arboreal component and crop residues, the erodibility of the soils on the study area's steep hillslopes, and the potential for banana plantations to increase throughfall kinetic energy, and splash erosion through canopy dripping are thought to be the leading causes of SOC and STN losses. More research is needed to identify the extent to which each cause influences SOC and STN losses.

Exploring soil nitrogen and sulfur dynamics: implications for greenhouse gas emissions on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and disturbances caused by human activity. To better understand the interactions between soil nitrogen and sulfur cycles and human activities on the plateau, the distribution characteristics of soil nitrogen and sulfur density and their influencing factors for three soil layers in Machin County at depths of 0-20 cm, 0-100 cm, and 0-180 cm are discussed in this paper. The results indicated that at depths of 0-180 cm, soil nitrogen density in Machin County varied between 1.36 and 16.85 kg/m2, while sulfur density ranged from 0.37 to 4.61 kg/m2. The effects of three factors-geological background, land use status, and soil type-on soil nitrogen and sulfur density were all highly significant (p < 0.01). Specifically, natural factors such as soil type and geological background, along with anthropogenic factors including land use practices and grazing intensity, were identified as decisive in causing spatial variations in soil nitrogen and sulfur density. Machin County on the Tibetan Plateau exhibits natural nitrogen and sulfur sinks; However, it is crucial to monitor the emissions of N2O and SO2 into the atmosphere from areas with high external nitrogen and sulfur inputs and low fertility retention capacities, such as bare land. On this basis, changes in the spatial and temporal scales of the nitrogen and sulfur cycles in soils and their source-sink relationships remain the focus of future research.

Assessing forest fragmentation due to land use changes from 1992 to 2023: A spatio-temporal analysis using remote sensing data.

The increasing pressures of urban development and agricultural expansion have significant implications for land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics, particularly in ecologically sensitive regions like the Murree and Kotli Sattian tehsils of the Rawalpindi district in Pakistan. This study's primary objective is to assess spatial variations within each LULC category over three decades (1992-2023) using cross-tabulation in ArcGIS to identify changes in LULC and investigates into forest fragmentation analysis using the Landscape Fragmentation Tool (LFTv2.0) to classify forest into several classes such as patch, edge, perforated, small core, medium core, and large core. Utilizing remote sensing data from Landsat 5 and Landsat 9 satellites, the research focuses on the temporal dynamics in various land classes including Coniferous Forest (CF), Evergreen Forest (EF), Arable Land (AR), Buildup Area (BU), Barren Land (BA), Water (WA), and Grassland (GL). The Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier and ArcGIS software were employed for image processing and classification, ensuring accuracy in categorizing different land types. Our results indicate a notable reduction in forested areas, with Coniferous Forest (CF) decreasing from 363.9 km2, constituting 45.0 % of the area in 1992, to 291.5 km2 (36.0 %) in 2023, representing a total decrease of 72.4 km2. Similarly, Evergreen Forests have also seen a significant reduction, from 177.9 km2 (22.0 %) in 1992 to 99.8 km2 (12.3 %) in 2023, a decrease of 78.1 km2. The study investigates into forest fragmentation analysis using the Landscape Fragmentation Tool (LFTv2.0), revealing an increase in fragmentation and a decrease in large core forests from 20.3 % of the total area in 1992 to 7.2 % in 2023. Additionally, the patch forest area increased from 2.4 % in 1992 to 5.9 % in 2023, indicating significant fragmentation. Transition matrices and a Sankey diagram illustrate the transitions between different LULC classes, providing a comprehensive view of the dynamics of land-use changes and their implications for ecosystem services. These findings highlight the critical need for robust conservation strategies and effective land management practices. The study contributes to the understanding of LULC dynamics and forest fragmentation in the Himalayan region of Pakistan, offering insights essential for future land management and policymaking in the face of rapid environmental changes.

Supplying the ethanol demand for 2030 in Brazil as a land-based climate change mitigation alternative: Implications on greenhouse gases emissions.

Transitioning from a fossil-based to a bio-based economy is crucial to climate action and achieving neutrality in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Biofuel production is an essential land-based GHG mitigation alternative. However, it raises concerns about biodiversity conservation, competition with food production, and net GHG emissions associated with direct land-use change (dLUC). This study aims to assess how the location and conversion routes influence GHG emissions for sugarcane expansion in Brazil to supply ethanol demand projections for 2030. A consistent and significant reduction in GHG emissions is achievable by implementing a strategy that prioritizes the spatial distribution for ethanol biorefinery expansions based on georeferenced life cycle emissions, including dLUC emissions associated with sugarcane production. Because of conservative zoning for sugarcane expansion, dLUC emissions are not an overriding factor, representing less than 9.1 % of the total GHG mitigation potential. Despite that, accounting for georeferenced dLUC emissions when prioritizing expansion facilities leads to spatial differences. Regarding conversion routes and land requirements, using cellulosic biorefineries could meet future projected demand based on sugarcane production from 3.1 million hectares, mostly in currently degraded pastureland. Conventional refineries would require 5.5 million hectares to meet the same demand of 71 billion liters. Despite the 77 % higher land demand to produce the same volume of ethanol, conventional refineries with straw recovery could be considered if electricity generation is a priority. This study illustrates how Brazil can achieve GHG mitigation targets while attending to future energy demand and protecting areas with high biodiversity.

Multi-scenario prediction and attribution analysis of carbon storage of ecological system in the Huaihe River Basin, China.

Evaluating the impact of large-scale human activities on carbon storage through land use changes is of growing interest in terrestrial ecosystem assessments. The Huaihe River Basin, a vital Chinese grain production area, has undergone marked land use changes amid socio-economic acceleration. Evaluating the impacts of land use change on carbon storage and future carbon sequestration is imperative for regional ecosystem sustainability and Chinese food security, simultaneously, furnishing data support to regional land use planning and decision-making processes. Nonetheless, the mechanisms linking land use changes to carbon storage and the future carbon reservoir responses remain unclear. We utilized a multi-source dataset and representative scenarios, integrating PLUS, InVEST models, and Geodetector to assess land use change impacts on carbon storage in the Huaihe River Basin (2000-2030). The data indicates the following: (1) from 2000 to 2020, cultivated land decreased by 28,344.69 km2, construction land increased by 26,914.56 km2, and other land types changed little. (2) Land use change resulted a carbon loss of 1.17 × 108 t, primarily due to the expansion of construction land. (3) All four simulation scenarios exhibited diminished carbon storage relative to 2020, with the economic development scenario recording the lowest at 4.98 × 109 t and the ecological protection scenario the highest at 5.06 × 109 t. (4) Elevation predominantly drives carbon storage changes, with its interaction with NPP having the greatest impact. The factors synergistically enhance their explanatory power. The research provides a scientific basis for strategies aimed at augmenting regional carbon sequestration and refining low-carbon land management, safeguarding ecosystem stability.

Differential contribution of microbial and plant-derived organic matter to soil organic carbon sequestration over two decades of natural revegetation and cropping.

Both natural revegetation and cropping have great impact on long-term soil carbon (C) sequestration, yet the differences in their underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we investigated trends in soil organic C (SOC) accumulation during natural revegetation (VR) and cropping processes over 24 years, and explored the contributions of microbial necromass and plant-derived C to SOC formation and their primary controls. Over the course of 24 years of land use/cover change (LUCC) from 1995, SOC content exhibited a more substantial increase in VR (0.31 g kg-1 a-1) than in cropland (0.14 g kg-1 a-1) during Stage II (>10 y after LUCC), and recalcitrant organic carbon explained more of the SOC variation than easily oxidizable carbon. The higher SOC content in VR was attributed to a greater contribution of plant-derived C (14-28 %) than that in cropland (3-11 %) to SOC and a consistently lower ratio of cinnamyl (C)- to vanillyl (V)-type phenols in VR across all the assessed years. Although there were higher proportion of microbial necromass of SOC (41-84 %) in cropland than in VR, the differences were not significant. The dominant bacterial phylum of Chloroflexi and soil nitrogen content were the primary biotic and abiotic factors regulating microbial-derived and plant-derived C in both cropland and VR. However, soil phosphorus content was the main factor in cropland, while climatic factors such as mean annual precipitation were more important in VR. These results provided evidence that long-term natural revegetation enhanced SOC sequestration by greater contribution of plant-derived C to SOC formation compared to cropping. These findings underscore the synergistic contribution of vegetation and microorganisms to long-term SOC sequestration, offering insights into the different mechanisms of carbon formation during VR and cropping processes, and providing support for optimizing land management to achieve global carbon neutrality goals.

Isotopic and trace element record of changing metal source contributions to tropical freshwater Lake Naivasha (Kenya).

Lake Naivasha, Kenya's second-largest freshwater body is a wetland of international ecological importance and currently subjected to unprecedented anthropogenic influence. The study aims to chronologically reconstruct the main human activities and background weathering reactions that govern metal mobilizations into the lake and their potentially adverse effects on its ecological status. We combine extensive geochemical analyses (major, trace elements, Zn-Pb isotope ratios) in a dated lake sediment record and catchment rocks with remote sensing techniques. Downcore geochemical variations reflect natural ecosystem destabilizations occurring as early as the first half of the 20th century. These coincide with changes towards less radiogenic Pb-isotope values which persist towards the top of the core (206Pb/207Pb = 1.243 at core base ∼1843, to 206Pb/207Pb = 1.225 at ∼1978). We interpret the land-clearance for agricultural purposes on the Aberdare Range and documented early aviation activities as possible vectors of this early Pb-isotope excursion. The overlapping Pb-isotope signatures between sediment sources and anthropogenic contributions challenges a straightforward deconvolution of the two. Our conservative model calculations suggest, nevertheless, that an addition of up to ∼1.8 % Pb-gasoline influx to the total Pb flux, peaking in the 1980s is able to explain the Pb distribution trend. Homogeneous Zn-isotope compositions in sediments deposited until ∼1970s (δ66/64Zn = 0.216-0.225 ‰) do not follow major hydro-climatic events or anthropogenic forcing but likely reflect lake-specific natural cycling. Subsequent higher variations to both heavier (up to δ66/64Zn = 0.242 ± 0.005 ‰) and lighter (down to δ66/64Zn = 0.184 ± 0.003 ‰) Zn-isotope values are contemporaneous with intensification of large-scale horticultural industry in the catchment. Together with supporting indicators, the lighter Zn-isotope compositions in youngest analysed sediments (21st century) are attributable to increased biological productivity (algal blooms) and ongoing lake eutrophication. Our study demonstrates the applicability of the heavy metal isotope tool to reconstruct human influences on lake environments with complex geological settings such as the East African Rift System.

Mangrove wetland recovery enhances soil carbon sequestration capacity of soil aggregates and microbial network stability in southeastern China.

Mangrove wetlands are highly productive ecosystems in tropical and subtropical coastal zones, play crucial roles in water purification, biodiversity maintenance, and carbon sequestration. Recent years have seen the implementation of pond return initiatives, which have facilitated the gradual recovery of mangrove areas in China. However, the implications of these initiatives for soil aggregate stability, microbial community structure, and network interactions remain unclear. This study assesses the impacts of converting ponds to mangroves-both in natural and artificially restored settings-on soil aggregate stability and microbial networks at typical mangrove restoration sites along China's southeastern coast. Our observations confirmed our hypothesis that pond-to-mangrove conversions resulted in an increase in the proportion of large aggregates (>0.25 mm), improved soil aggregate structural stability, and increased carbon sequestration. However, mangrove recovery led to a decrease in the abundance and diversity of soil fungi communities. In terms of co-occurrence networks, naturally restored mangrove wetlands exhibited more nodes and edges. The naturally recovered mangrove wetlands demonstrated a higher level of community symbiosis compared to those that were manually restored. Conversely, bacterial networks showed a different pattern, with significant shifts in key taxa related to carbon sequestration functions. For instance, the proportion of bacterial Desulfobacterota and fungi Basidiomycota in natural recovery mangrove increased by 15.03 % and 7.82 %, respectively, compared with that in aquaculture ponds. Soil fungi and bacteria communities, as well as carbon sequestration by aggregates, were all positively correlated with soil total carbon content (P < 0.05). Both bacterial and fungal communities contributed to soil aggregate stability. Our study highlights the complex relationships between soil microbial communities, aggregate stability, and the carbon cycle before and after land-use changes. These findings underscore the potential benefits of restoring mangrove wetlands, as such efforts can enhance carbon storage capacity and significantly contribute to climate change mitigation.

Rethinking Urban Water Management Through Drivers-Pressures-States-Impacts-Responses Framework Application in Chennai, India.

Cities suffering water scarcity are projected to increase in the following decades. However, the application of standardized indicator frameworks for assessing urban water resource management problems is on an early stage. India is expected to have the highest urban population facing water scarcity in the world by 2050. In this study, the authors assess how the Drivers-Pressures-States-Impacts-Responses framework, a causal framework adopted by the European Environment Agency, can contribute to evaluate water management challenges in cities and apply it to Chennai, India´s fourth-largest urban agglomeration. The framework proved to be a helpful tool for the evaluation of water management challenges in cities by disentangling relationships between environmental indicators and structuring dispersed data that allows a better understanding for policymakers. The main drivers identified in Chennai were population growth and economic development which generated impacts such as loss of aquatic ecosystems, low water table, low water quality, and reduction of biodiversity and human health. As a response, better urban planning, projects for new water infrastructure, and water bodies restoration have been implemented. Nevertheless, Chennai keeps facing difficulties to achieve proper water management. The severe hit of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Indian economy and its future management will be key for achievements related to water management.

A social-ecological approach to support equitable land use decision-making.

Human-driven land use change can result in unequitable outcomes in the provision and appropriation of ecosystem services (ES). To better address equity-related effects of land use change in decision-making, analyses of land use and ES changes under different land use management alternatives should incorporate ecological and social information and take a disaggregated approach to ES analysis. Because such approaches are still scarce in the literature, we present a generalized social-ecological approach to support equitable land use decision-making (in terms of process and outcomes) and an example of its application to a case study in southwestern Ethiopia. We propose a six-step approach that combines scenario planning with equity-focused, disaggregated analyses of ES. Its application in our study area made equity-related effects of land use change explicit through the recognition of different beneficiary groups, value types, and spatial locations. We recommend the application of our approach in other contexts, especially in the Global South.

From chocolate to palm oil: The future of Indonesia's cocoa plantations.

Indonesia is the world's third largest cocoa producer, but production is decreasing since 2011. We revisited cocoa farmers for an environmental assessment in Luwu Timur, Sulawesi, 7 months after a socio-economic survey on cocoa certification outcomes and observed many cocoa plantations being converted into oil palm and maize. Including our field data as well as secondary data on commodity prices and yields, we outline reasons for cocoa conversion, potential consequences for biodiversity, and assess the future outlook for the Indonesian cocoa sector. Low cocoa productivity, volatile cocoa prices and higher revenue for oil palm, among others, drive land-use change. If shade trees are cut during cocoa conversion, it may have negative implications for biodiversity. Solutions to low soil fertility, omnipresent pests and diseases, and stable producer prices are needed to increase profitability of cocoa and prevent conversion of cocoa agroforests to oil palm monocultures.

[Prediction of Land Use and Habitat Quality in Harbin City Based on the PLUS- InVEST Model].

Analyzing the spatiotemporal evolution of urban land use and habitat quality can reveal the correlation between land use and habitat quality, aiding in rational urban land policies and high-quality ecological environment development. This study was based on land use transition matrices and an Intensity-Migration （IM） model to analyze the changes in land use in Harbin from 2000 to 2020. It combined the PLUS model to explore the driving factors of land use expansion for various land types and predicted land use scenarios for 2030 under natural development, ecological protection, farmland protection, and urban development scenarios. Finally, the InVEST model was used to complete the habitat quality analysis. The results indicated： ① The dominant land use types in Harbin were cropland, forest land, and grassland. From 2000 to 2020, there was a significant tendency of conversion into grassland, cropland, forest land, and artificial surfaces, with noticeable changes in land use intensity. Water bodies, bare land, and wetland types showed less conversion and tended to be restrictive. ② Elevation was the primary factor influencing the expansion of grassland, cropland, forest land, bare land, wetland, and water bodies. Socioeconomic factors were the main factor affecting the expansion of artificial surfaces. ③ Simulation of land use types in Harbin for 2030 under the four scenarios showed an increase in forest land area and a decrease in grassland area, with insignificant changes in wetland, water bodies, and bare land areas. Except for in the ecological protection scenario, the area of artificial surfaces increased, whereas cropland decreased. ④ Overall, habitat quality in Harbin improved from 2000 to 2020. ⑤ In 2030, the spatial pattern of habitat quality in Harbin remained consistent across all scenarios, showing an overall improvement in habitat quality. Under the ecological protection scenario, areas with low and medium habitat quality decreased, whereas areas with higher habitat quality increased, indicating a relatively significant improvement in habitat quality. The research results provide a scientific basis and insights for the development of ecological civilization and urban planning and construction in Harbin.

[Spatio-temporal Pattern of Ecosystem Service Value Evolution in the Yihe River Basin in the Context of Land Use Change].

In this study, the modified equivalent factor method was applied to account for the long time series ecosystem service value （ESV） of the Yihe River Basin from 1975 to 2020 in the context of land use change, and the cold hot spot analysis and topographic position analysis methods were introduced to explore the characteristics of its spatial pattern. The results showed that： ① From 1975 to 2020, the land use type of the Yihe River Basin was dominated by arable land, and the land use changes were characterized by the rapid decrease of arable land and the continuous expansion of construction land, a slight increase in the area of forest land and grassland, a contraction of the water body area, and little change in the area of unused land. ② The modified equivalent factor method was more suitable for accounting for the ESV in the basin. From 1975 to 2020, the overall ESV of the basin showed an upward spiral trend （33.369-33.816 billion CNY）, dominated by the regulating services. The ESV of arable land was the highest with a decreasing trend, whereas the ESV of unused land was the lowest. ③ In the horizontal spatial pattern, the hot spot of ESV was near mountains and reservoirs, and the cold spot of ESV was near urban areas. In terms of vertical spatial patterns, with growing topographic gradient, vertical changes in ESV for all land use types showed an increasing trend followed by a decreasing trend. The results of the study revealed the spatial and temporal patterns of ecosystem service values in the Yihe River Basin in the context of land use change and provide a scientific basis for optimizing the land use structure and spatial pattern and enhancing ecosystem services.

Different effects of seasonal impoundment and land use change on microbiome in a tributary sediment of the three gorgers reservoir.

Anthropogenic activities significantly impact river ecosystem nutrient fluxes and microbial metabolism. Here, we examined the seasonal and spatial variation of sediments physicochemical parameters and the associated microbiome in the Pengxi river, a representative tributary of Three Gorges Reservoir, in response to seasonal impoundment and land use change by human activities. Results revealed that seasonal impoundment and land use change enhanced total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) and ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) concentration in the sediment, but have different effects on sediment microbiome. Sediment microbiota showed higher similarity during the seasonal high-water level (HWL) in consecutive two years. The abundant phyla Acidobacteria, Gemmatimonadetes, Cyanobacteria, Actinobacteria and Planctomycetes significantly increased as water level increased. Along the changes in bacterial taxa, we also observed changes in predicted carbon fixation functions and nitrogen-related functions, including the significantly higher levels of Calvin cycle, 4HB/3HP cycle, 3HP cycle and assimilatory nitrate reduction, while significantly lower level of denitrification. Though land use change significantly increased TOC, TN and NH4+-N concentration, its effects on spatial variation of bacterial community composition and predicted functions was not significant. The finding indicates that TGR hydrologic changes and land use change have different influences on the carbon and nitrogen fluxes and their associated microbiome in TGR sediments. A focus of future research will be on assessing on carbon and nitrogen flux balance and the associated carbon and nitrogen microbial cycling in TGR sediment.

Dynamic shifts of functional diversity through climate-resilient strategies and farmland restoration in a mountain protected area.

Land-use land-cover (LULC) change contributes to major ecological impacts, particularly in areas undergoing land abandonment, inducing modifications on habitat structure and species distributions. Alternative land-use policies are potential solutions to alleviate the negative impacts of contemporary tendencies of LULC change on biodiversity. This work analyzes these tendencies in the Montesinho Natural Park (Portugal), an area representative of European abandoned mountain rural areas. We built ecological niche models for 226 species of vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) and vascular plants, using a consensus modelling approach available in the R package 'biomod2'. We projected the models to contemporary (2018) and future (2050) LULC scenarios, under four scenarios aiming to secure relevant ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation for 2050: an afforestation and a rewilding scenario, focused on climate-smart management strategies, and a farmland and an agroforestry recovery scenario, based on re-establishing human traditional activities. We quantified the influences of these scenarios on biodiversity through species habitat suitability changes for 2018-2050. We analyzed how these management strategies could influence indices of functional diversity (functional richness, functional evenness and functional dispersion) within the park. Habitat suitability changes revealed complementary patterns among scenarios. Afforestation and rewilding scenarios benefited more species adapted to habitats with low human influence, such as forests and open woodlands. The highest functional richness and dispersion was predicted for rewilding scenarios, which could improve landscape restoration and provide opportunities for the expansion and recolonization of forest areas by native species. The recovery of traditional farming and agroforestry activities results in the lowest values of functional richness, but these strategies contribute to complex landscape matrices with diversified habitats and resources. Moreover, this strategy could offer opportunities for fire suppression and increase landscape fire resistance. An integrative approach reconciling rewilding initiatives with the recovery of extensive agricultural and agroforestry activities is potentially an harmonious strategy for supporting the provision of ecosystem services while securing biodiversity conservation and functional diversity within the natural park.

Impacts of deforestation and land use/land cover change on carbon stock dynamics in Jomoro District, Ghana.

Tropical deforestation in the African continent plays a key role in the global carbon cycle and bears significant implications in terms of climate change and sustainable development. Especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where more than two-thirds of the population rely on forest and woodland resources for their livelihoods, deforestation and land use changes for crop production lead to a substantial loss of ecosystem-level carbon stock. Unfortunately, the impacts of deforestation and land use change can be more critical than in any other region, but these are poorly quantified. We analyse changes in the main carbon pools (above- and below-ground, soil and litter, respectively) after deforestation and land use/land cover change, for the Jomoro District (Ghana), by assessing the initial reference level of carbon stock for primary forest and the subsequent stock changes and dynamics as a consequence of conversion to the secondary forest and to five different tree plantations (rubber, coconut, cocoa, oil palm, and mixed plantations) on a total of 72 plots. Results indicate overall a statistically significant carbon loss across all the land uses/covers and for all the carbon pools compared to the primary forest with the total carbon stock loss ranging between 35% and 85% but with no statistically significant differences observed in the comparison between primary forest and mixed plantations and secondary forest. Results also suggest that above-ground carbon and soil organic carbon are the primary pools contributing to the total carbon stocks but with opposite trends of carbon loss and accumulation. Strategies for sustainable development, policies to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, carbon stock enhancement (REDD+), and planning for sustainable land use management should carefully consider the type of conversion and carbon stock dynamics behind land use change for a win-win strategy while preserving carbon stocks potential in tropical ecosystems.

Land in limbo: Nearly one third of Indonesia's cleared old-growth forests left idle.

Indonesia has experienced rapid primary forest loss, second only to Brazil in modern history. We examined the fates of Indonesian deforested areas, immediately after clearing and over time, to quantify deforestation drivers in Indonesia. Using time-series satellite data, we tracked degradation and clearing events in intact and degraded natural forests from 1991 to 2020, as well as land use trajectories after forest loss. While an estimated 7.8 Mha (SE = 0.4) of forest cleared during this period had been planted with oil palms by 2020, another 8.8 Mha (SE = 0.4) remained unused. Of the 28.4 Mha (SE = 0.7) deforested, over half were either initially left idle or experienced crop failure before a land use could be detected, and 44% remained unused for 5 y or more. A majority (54%) of these areas were cleared mechanically (not by escaped fires), and in cases where idle lands were eventually converted to productive uses, oil palm plantations were by far the most common outcome. The apparent deliberate creation of idle deforested land in Indonesia and subsequent conversion of idle areas to oil palm plantations indicates that speculation and land banking for palm oil substantially contribute to forest loss, although failed plantations could also contribute to this dynamic. We also found that in Sumatra, few lowland forests remained, suggesting that a lack of remaining forest appropriate for palm oil production, together with an extensive area of banked deforested land, may partially explain slowing forest loss in Indonesia in recent years.

Woody encroachment: social-ecological impacts and sustainable management.

Woody plants are encroaching across terrestrial ecosystems globally, and this has dramatic effects on how these systems function and the livelihoods of producers who rely on the land to support livestock production. Consequently, the removal of woody plants is promoted widely in the belief that it will reinstate former grasslands or open savanna. Despite this popular management approach to encroachment, we still have a relatively poor understanding of the effects of removal on society, and of alternative management practices that could balance the competing needs of pastoral production, biodiversity conservation and cultural values. This information is essential for maintaining both ecological and societal benefits in encroached systems under predicted future climate changes. In this review, we provide a comprehensive synthesis of the social-ecological perspectives of woody encroachment based on recent studies and global meta-analyses by assessing the ecological impacts of encroachment and its effects on sustainable development goals (SDGs) when woody plants are retained and when they are removed. We propose a working definition of woody encroachment based on species- and community-level characteristics; such a definition is needed to evaluate accurately the effects of encroachment. We show that encroachment is a natural process of succession rather than a sign of degradation, with encroachment resulting in an overall 8% increase in ecosystem multifunctionality. Removing woody plants can increase herbaceous plant richness, biomass and cover, but at the expense of biocrust cover. The effectiveness of woody plant removal depends on plant identity, and where, when and how they are removed. Under current management practices, either removal or retention of woody plants can induce trade-offs among ecosystem services, with no management practice maximising all SDGs [e.g. SDG2 (end hunger), SDG13 (climate change), SDG 15 (combat desertification)]. Given that encroachment of woody plants is likely to increase under future predicted hotter and drier climates, alternative management options such as carbon farming and ecotourism could be effective land uses for areas affected by encroachment.

Reptile responses to fire across the western Mediterranean Basin.

Effects of anthropogenic activities, including climate change, are modifying fire regimes, and the dynamic nature of these modifications requires identification of general patterns of organisms' responses to fire. This is a challenging task because of the high complexity of factors involved (including climate, geography, land use, and species-specific ecology). We aimed to describe the responses of the reptile community to fire across a range of environmental and fire-history conditions in the western Mediterranean Basin. We sampled 8 sites that spanned 4 Mediterranean countries. We recorded 6064 reptile sightings of 36 species in 1620 transects and modeled 3 community metrics (total number of individuals, species richness, and Shannon diversity) as responses to environmental and fire-history variables. Reptile community composition was also analyzed. Habitat type (natural vs. afforestation), fire age class (time since the last fire), rainfall, and temperature were important factors in explaining these metrics. The total number of individuals varied according to fire age class, reaching a peak at 15-40 years after the last fire. Species richness and Shannon diversity were more stable during postfire years. The 3 community metrics were higher under postfire conditions than in unburned forest plots. This pattern was particularly prevalent in afforested plots, indicating that the negative effect of fire on reptiles was lower than the negative effect of afforestation. Community composition varied by fire age class, indicating the existence of early- and late-successional species (xeric and saxicolous vs. mesic reptiles, respectively). Species richness was 46% higher in areas with a single fire age class relative to those with a mixture of fire age classes, which indicates pyrodiverse landscapes promoted reptile diversity. An expected shift to more frequent fires will bias fire age distribution toward a predominance of early stages, and this will be harmful to reptile communities.

Respuestas de reptiles al fuego en la Cuenca Mediterránea occidental Resumen Los efectos de actividades antropogénicas, incluyendo el cambio climático, están modificando los regímenes de fuego, y la naturaleza dinámica de estas modificaciones requiere la identificación de patrones generales de las respuestas de los organismos al fuego. Esta es una tarea desafiante debido a la gran complejidad de los factores involucrados (incluyendo clima, geografía, uso de suelo y la ecología de cada especie). Nuestro objetivo fue describir las respuestas de la comunidad de reptiles al fuego bajo diversas condiciones ambientales e historias de fuego en la Cuenca Mediterránea occidental. Muestreamos ocho sitios en cuatro países mediterráneos. Registramos 6064 avistamientos de reptiles de 36 especies en 1620 transectos y modelamos tres métricas comunitarias (número total de individuos, riqueza de especies y diversidad de Shannon) como respuestas a las variables ambientales y de historia de fuego. También analizamos la composición de la comunidad de reptiles. El tipo de hábitat (natural versus forestación), la clase de edad del fuego (tiempo transcurrido desde el último incendio), la precipitación pluvial y la temperatura fueron factores importantes en la explicación de estas métricas. El número total de individuos varió de acuerdo con la clase de edad del fuego, alcanzando un pico a los 15­40 años después del último incendio. La riqueza de especies y la diversidad de Shannon fueron más estables durante los años posteriores a incendios. Las tres métricas de la comunidad fueron más altas bajo condiciones post incendio que en las parcelas sin historial de fuego. Este patrón fue particularmente prevalente en parcelas forestadas, lo cual indica que el efecto negativo del fuego sobre los reptiles fue menor que el efecto negativo de la forestación. La composición de la comunidad varió por clase de edad del fuego, indicando la existencia de especies sucesionales tempranas y tardías (reptiles xéricos y saxícolas, respectivamente). La riqueza de especie fue 46% mas alta en áreas con una sola clase de edad del fuego que en aquellas con una mezcla de clases de edad del fuego, lo cual indica que los paisajes pirodiversos promovieron la diversidad de reptiles. Un cambio esperado hacia incendios más frecuentes sesgará la distribución de la edad del fuego hacia una predominancia de etapas tempranas, y esto será perjudicial para las comunidades de reptiles.