Teenage pregnancy in Tambogrande, Peru: causes, consequences and cycles of violence and disadvantage.

Teenage pregnancy carries adverse consequences for health and well-being. In this article, we investigate the perceived causes, consequences and cycles of violence and disadvantage associated with teenage pregnancy in Tambogrande, Peru using an applied anthropological approach. Data were drawn from a larger project investigating the relationship between water insecurity and gender-based violence in Indonesia and Peru. The analysis presented here is derived from 49 semi-structured interviews and 5 focus groups with local community members and stakeholders in Peru. Study participants highlighted two main factors contributing to teenage pregnancy in Tambogrande: machismo and religious deterrents to contraceptive use. Participants described how these factors overlapped, resulting in gendered power imbalances that increased the risk of violence, decreased educational opportunities, and reduced the economic independence of women. However, study participants stated that educational interventions targeting machismo could reduce teenage pregnancy and break the associated cycle of disadvantage. Future research will further investigate local social and gender norms to inform the design of a rights-based educational intervention, targeting upstream factors associated with teenage pregnancy in this area.

Cartografias de mulheres no asfalto: diálogos sobre o complexo cultural do machismo / Maps of women on the asphalt: dialogues about the cultural complex of machismo / Cartografías de mujeres en el asfalto: diálogos sobre el complejo cultural del machismo

Neste texto, a autora adota uma metodologia ensaística impulsionada pelo desejo de devolver a polis da alma à poesia. A partir da técnica de imaginação ativa desenvolvida por Jung, a autora estabelece um diálogo com um grafite situado em Salvador, Bahia. Essa obra é parte da série "Luto" concebida pela artista baiana Thalita Andrade. O grafite em questão retrata uma mulher, cuja imagem sofreu importantes transformações durante o período do governo de Jair Bolsonaro, tornando-se objeto de reflexão mais direto sobre as mudanças políticas e culturais em curso na sociedade brasileira. Nessa perspectiva, este artigo se propõe a analisar o quanto a mudança da imagem grafitada, aparentemente tão circunscrita, pode também refletir uma necessidade de mudança coletiva. Para tanto, além do conceito pós-junguiano de complexos culturais, a autora faz uso da teoria junguiana sobre energia psíquica, aliada ao aporte proveniente dos campos da história da arte e da literatura.

In this text, the author adopts an essayistic methodology driven by the desire to restore the soul's polis to poetry. Using Jung's active imagination technique, the author engages in a dialogue with a graffiti located in Salvador, Bahia. This artwork is part of the "Mourning" series conceived by the Bahian artist Thalita Andrade. The graffiti in question portrays a woman whose image underwent significant transformations during Jair Bolsonaro's government, becoming a more direct object of reflection on the ongoing political and cultural changes in Brazilian society. From this perspective, this article aims to analyze how the change in the graffitied image, seemingly so confined, may also reflect a need for collective change. To do so, in addition to the post-Jungian concept of cultural complexes, the author utilizes Jung's theory of psychic energy, along with contributions from the fields of art history and literature.

En este texto, la autora adopta una metodología ensayística impulsada por el deseo de devolver la polis del alma a la poesía. A partir de la técnica de imaginación activa desarrollada por Jung, la autora establece un diálogo con un artista de grafiti situado en Salvador, Bahía. Esta obra es parte de la serie "Luto" concebida por la artista bahiana Thalita Andrade. El grafiti en cuestión representa a una mujer, cuya imagen sufrió importantes transformaciones durante el período del gobierno de Jair Bolsonaro, convirtiéndose en objeto de reflexión más directa sobre los cambios políticos y culturales en curso en la sociedad brasileña. En esa perspectiva, este artículo se propone analizar cuánto el cambio de la imagen del grafiti, aparentemente tan circunscrita, puede también estar reflejando una necesidad de cambio colectivo. Para tanto, además del concepto post-Junguiano de complejos culturales, la autora hace uso de la teoría junguiana sobre energía psíquica, aliados al aporte proveniente de los campos de la historia del arte y de la literatura.

Análisis psicométrico de la Escala de Machismo Sexual (EMS-Sexismo-12) en estudiantes universitarios de Arequipa, Perú / Validation Psychometrical analysis of Sexual Machism Scale (EMS-Sexism-12) among university students from Arequipa, Peru

Introducción: El machismo sexual es una forma de discriminación de género basada en creencias, estereotipos y actitudes que limitan la autonomía y devalúan a las personas con base en su género. Objetivo: Conocer la validez de la estructura interna y la confiabilidad del EMS-Sexismo-12, para medir machismo de tipo sexual en población peruana. Método: El diseño del estudio fue instrumental, la muestra fue aleatoria y estuvo conformada por 2470 estudiantes de una universidad pública de la ciudad de Arequipa, de los cuales el 50% fueron hombres, con edad (M =20.53; DE = 2.64) y el otro 50% mujeres, con edad (M= 19.95; DE = 2.27), estudiantes de las áreas de ingenierías y ciencias sociales. El instrumento utilizado fue la Escala de Machismo Sexual (EMS-Sexismo-12) construida y validada en su versión original en México. Resultados: Los datos fueron analizados a través de un AFC y un estimador WLSMV y matrices policóricas con el software libre Rstudio, encontrando un modelo unidimensional con buenos índices de bondad de ajuste, en hombres (CFI= .924, TLI = .907, SMRM= 0.069) y en mujeres (CFI= .936, TLI = .922, SMRM= 0.051), además, se evidencia confiabilidad por consistencia interna buena, en hombres y mujeres respectivamente (ω = .969; ω = .897), se adjunta baremos por hombres y mujeres. Conclusión: La escala de machismo sexual, muestra evidencias de validez y confiabilidad similares y con los mismos ítems en hombres y mujeres de Arequipa, Perú.

Background: Sexual masochism is a form of gender discrimination based on beliefs, stereotypes and attitudes that limit autonomy and devalue individuals based on their gender. Objective: To determine the internal structure validity and reliability of the EMS-Sexism-12 to measure sexual machismo in the Peruvian population. Method: The study used an instrumental design with a convenience sample of 2470 students from a public university in Arequipa, Peru. The sample consisted of 50% men (M = 20.53; SD = 2.64) and 50% women (M = 19.95; SD = 2.27), representing engineering and social science disciplines. The instrument used was the Sexual Machismo Scale (EMS-Sexism-12), originally constructed and validated in Mexico. Results: The data were analysed using CFA and the WLSMV estimator along with polychoric correlation matrices in the open-source software Rstudio. The analysis revealed a unidimensional model with good fit indices for both men (CFI = .924, TLI = .907, SMRM = 0.069) and women (CFI = .936, TLI = .922, SMRM = 0.051). Furthermore, evidence of internal consistency reliability was observed for men and women, respectively (ω = .969; ω = .897). Gender-specific norms are included for reference. Conclusions: The sexual machismo scale shows evidence of similar validity and reliability with the same items in men and women from Arequipa, Peru.

The native potato, a symbol of macho expression in the Quechua culture of Peru.

The present field research focuses on the native potato varieties, Wira pasña and Llumchuy waqachi, cultivated in the Peruvian highlands at roughly 4,000 m above sea level. The objective is to analyze the macho essence of the names assigned to the native potato, names that represent the social manifestation of women in Quechua culture. Participant observation and interviews about the different daily activities of the participants facilitated the research on the macho essence of the names of the native potato in the Quechua culture. The preponderant Quechua oral sources in the Peruvian Andes did not allow us to identify exactly how names associated with the macho way of social life were assigned to the native potatoes.

Traditional gender roles translating into behaviors within adolescents' romantic relationships / Roles tradicionales de género traducidos en comportamientos en las relaciones románticas de los adolescentes / Papéis tradicionais de gênero que se traduzem em comportamentos nas relações românticas dos adolescentes

Abstract While several studies suggest that traditional gender ideologies are strongly embedded in Latino populations, little is known about the way they operate in adolescent's romantic relationships. This mixed-methods study was carried out with adolescents in Cuenca, Ecuador. In the quantitative component, we assessed adolescents' support for traditional gender ideologies in a sample of 562 adolescents (n = 309 girls). It was identified that the majority of adolescents were "uncritical" towards traditional ideologies involving masculinity (82%) and femininity (79%). In the qualitative component, the narratives of a sample of 20 adolescents reflected existing discourses on traditional gender roles and revealed how these ideologies are translated into specific behaviors. In this context, romantic relationships can become negative and dysfunctional spaces that affect adolescents' development.

Resumen Si bien varios estudios han sugerido que las ideologías de género tradicionales están fuertemente arraigadas en las poblaciones latinas, aún se sabe poco sobre la forma en que estas operan en las relaciones románticas de los adolescentes. Este estudio de método mixto se realizó con adolescentes de Cuenca en Ecuador. En el componente cuantitativo, evaluamos el apoyo a las ideologías tradicionales de género en una muestra de 562 adolescentes (n = 309 niñas). Se encontró que la mayoría de los adolescentes podrían ser clasificados como «acríticos¼ hacia las ideologías tradicionales de masculinidad (82%) y feminidad (79%). En el componente cualitativo, las narrativas de una muestra de 20 adolescentes reflejaron los discursos existentes sobre los roles tradicionales de género y revelaron cómo estos se traducen en comportamientos específicos. En este contexto, las relaciones románticas pueden convertirse en espacios negativos y disfuncionales que pueden afectar el desarrollo de los adolescentes.

Resumo Embora vários estudos tenham sugerido que as ideologias tradicionais de gênero são fortemente endossadas nas populações latinas, ainda pouco se sabe sobre a forma como operam nas relações românticas dos adolescentes. Este estudo de métodos mistos foi realizado com adolescentes de Cuenca, no Equador. No componente quantitativo, avaliamos o endosso de ideologias tradicionais de gênero em uma amostra de 562 adolescentes (n = 309 meninas). Verificouse que a maioria dos adolescentes pode ser classificada como "acrítica" em relação às ideologias tradicionais de masculinidade (82%) e feminilidade (79%). No componente qualitativo, as narrativas de uma amostra de 20 adolescentes refletiram os discursos existentes sobre os papéis tradicionais de gênero e revelaram como estes se traduzem em comportamentos específicos. Nesse contexto, os relacionamentos amorosos podem se tornar espaços negativos e disfuncionais que podem afetar o desenvolvimento dos adolescentes.

Mentalidad machista, estilos de crianza y vulnerabilidad social en cuidadores primarios. Una comparación transcultural entre Argentina y Perú / Sexist mentality, parenting styles and social vulnerability in primary caregivers. A cross-cultural comparison between Argentina and Peru

Resumen Introducción: la mentalidad machista es un fenómeno persistente en Latinoamérica. Sin embargo, no se tienen claros los factores que la generan, por ello, se realizó el estudio para analizar la mentalidad machista en función de factores como los estilos parentales y la vulnerabilidad social. Método: la muestra estuvo constituida por 389 (M.edad = 35.87, DE = 10.13) cuidadores primarios de niños, niñas y adolescentes de 4-16 años (M.edad= 9.33, DE = 4.66, femenino = 196) de diferentes regiones de Perú y Argentina. Se utilizaron (a) la subescala de Machismo de la Evaluación Multifásica de las Culturas (MACC-SF), (b) la Adaptación Española del Cuestionario de Crianza Parental y (c) una ficha sociodemográfica ad hoc, aplicadas través de las redes sociales mediante un formulario. Resultados: en ambas muestras, los niveles de machismo son relativamente bajos, aunque la muestra argentina presentó menores niveles y hábitos más positivos de crianza, en comparación con Perú. A su vez, se encontró asociación negativa entre machismo y estilos parentales, con mayor intensidad en las dimensiones; satisfacción con la crianza y disciplina. Finalmente, el machismo se asoció de forma negativa con la vulnerabilidad social y los estilos de crianza. Conclusión: las creencias machistas estarían asociadas con menor nivel socioeconómico y estilos de crianza más autoritarios, los que también se rigen por sus tradiciones y a un conservadurismo del legado cultural, en comparación a culturas más flexibles y democráticas.

Abstract Introduction: the macho mentality is a phenomenon that persists in the Latin American population; however, the factors that generate it are not clear. Therefore, the study is carried out with the objective of analyzing the macho mentality, based on factors such as parental styles and social vulnerability; and comparing according to country of origin: Argentina and Peru, respectively. Method: the sample consisted of 389 (M.age = 35.87, SD = 10.13) primary caregivers of children and adolescents from 4 to 16 (M.age = 9.33, SD = 4.66, feminine = 196) years of age from different regions of Peru and Argentina. The instruments used were the Machismo subscale of the Multiphasic Evaluation of Cultures (MACC-SF), the Spanish Adaptation of the Parental Upbringing Questionnaire, and an ad-hoc sociodemographic record, which were all applied through social networks using a Google® form. Results: in both samples, the levels of machismo are relatively low, although the Argentine sample presented lower levels of machismo and more positive parenting habits compared to that of Peru. In turn, a negative association was found between machismo and parenting styles, with greater intensity in the dimensions: satisfaction with parenting and discipline. Finally, machismo was negatively associated with social vulnerability and parenting styles. Conclusions: macho beliefs would be associated with a lower socioeconomic level and more authoritarian and inflexible parenting styles, which are also governed by their traditions and a cultural legacy of conservatism in comparison to more flexible and democratic cultures.

Accounting for linguistic acculturation, coping, antisociality and depressive affect in the gender role-alcohol use relationship in Mexican American adolescents: a moderated mediation model for boys and girls.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies have established that gender roles are predictive of substance use for Mexican and Mexican American adolescents, both living in the U.S. and in Mexico. Objectives: The moderating effects of gender and acculturation and the mediating effects of antisociality, depressive affect, and adaptive and avoidant coping on the gender role-alcohol use relationship were examined in a sample of Mexican American adolescents. METHODS: Secondary data analyses were conducted on a sample of 955 (450 boys, 505 girls) Mexican American 7th and 8th grade adolescents participating in a school-based substance use intervention. RESULTS: For boys, path analyses yielded significant direct paths from aggressive masculinity to alcohol use. Bootstrapped mediation tests also yielded significant indirect paths through antisociality from assertive masculinity, affective femininity, aggressive masculinity, and the interaction of linguistic acculturation by affective femininity to alcohol use. For girls, the relationship between aggressive masculinity with alcohol use and the negative relationship of affective femininity with alcohol use were also mediated by adaptive coping, which is predictive of decreased substance use. CONCLUSION/IMPORTANCE: The present analyses confirm the importance of gender roles, functional mediators, and their interaction with acculturation in predicting substance use in Mexican American adolescents, with implications for the design of interventions to reduce substance use within the Mexican American community.

O androcentrismo do torcer: Do Universo do Futebol ao estádio contemporâneo / The androcentrism of cheering: From the SoccerUniverse to the contemporary stadium / El androcentrismo del hinchar: Del Universo del Fútbol al estadio contemporáneo

Objetivos: problematizamos como os sujeitos torcedores dialogam com oquadro normativo que naturaliza o ambiente dos estádios de futebol como masculino e heteronormativo, a partir de como esses mesmos sujeitos identificam suas alteridades.Metodologia:realizamos diálogos com grupos detorcedores nos quais discutíamosa mudança de um antigo estádio para uma nova arena e a possível presença de violência verbal durante as partidas.Resultados e discussão:os torcedores acabavam naturalizando o gosto pelo esporte para justificar uma maior presença masculina nos estádios;outros pareciam um tanto mais sensibilizados com pautasfeministas e condenavam suas próprias atitudes; à participação das mulheres é atribuída uma diferença natural; a maior presença das mulheres acaba sendo associada de forma direta a diminuição do machismo no futebol; homens não heterossexuais também são incluídos como a alteridade do "homem" torcedor;outra alteridade foi nomeada como família; incentivando a equipe,colaborando com o clube e performando "adequadamente", os torcedores homossexuais estariam autorizados a torcer com os demais.Considerações Finais:Podemos visualizar a existência de um quadro normativo que destaca a relação entre futebol e masculinidade no Brasil. Ele já aparecia com destaque quando do lançamento do Universo do futebol, em 1982,e parece ainda atual. Se o androcentrismo eradadocomonatural no Universo do futebolaqui ele é um elemento no centro das lutas por significados em um contexto social mais amplo e, também, em tudo o que envolva a prática e a apreciação do futebol.

Objectives: we problematize how the supporters dialogue with the normative framework that naturalizes the environment of football stadiums as masculine and heteronormative, based on how these same subjects identify their alterities. Methodology:we held dialogues with groups of fans in which we discussed the move from an old stadium to a new arena and the possible presence of verbal violence during matches. Results and discussion:fans ended up naturalizing the taste for the sport to justify a greater male presence in stadiums; others seemed somewhat more sensitized to feminist agendas and condemned their own attitudes; the participation of women is attributed a natural difference; the greater presence of women ends up being directly associated with the reduction of machismin soccer; non-heterosexual men are also included as the otherness of themalefan; another otherness was named as family; by encouraging the team, collaborating with the club and performing "properly", homosexual fans would be allowed to cheer with the others. Final Considerations:We can visualize the existence of a normative framework that highlights the relationship between football and masculinity in Brazil. It already appeared prominently when the Universe of Soccerwasreleased in 1982, and it still seems current. If androcentrism was taken for granted in the Universe of Soccer, here it is an element at the center of struggles for meaning in a broader social context and also in everything that involves the practice and appreciation of Soccer.

Objetivos: problematizamos cómo los hinchas dialogan con el marco normativo que naturaliza el ambiente de los estadios de fútbol como masculino y heteronormativo, a partir de cómo estos mismos sujetos identifican sus alteridades. Metodología:mantuvimos diálogos congrupos de hinchas en los que discutimos el traslado de un antiguo estadio a unanuevaarenay la posible presencia de violencia verbal durante los partidos. Resultados y discusión:loshinchasacabaronnaturalizando el gusto por el deporte para justificaruna mayor presencia masculina en los estadios; otros parecían algo más sensibilizadas con las agendas feministas y condenaban sus propias actitudes; a la participación de la mujer se le atribuye una diferencia natural; la mayor presencia de mujeres termina directamente asociada con la reducción del machismo en el fútbol; los hombres no heterosexuales también se incluyen como la alteridad del "hombre" hincha; otra alteridad fue nombrada como familia; animando al equipo, colaborando con el club y actuando "adecuadamente", los hinchashomosexuales podrían animar con los demás. Consideraciones finales:Podemos visualizar la existencia de un marco normativo que destaca la relación entre fútbol y masculinidad en Brasil. Ya apareció de forma destacada cuando se lanzó el Universo del Fútbolen 1982, y sigue pareciendo actual. Si el androcentrismo se daba como definitivoen el Universo del Fútbol, aquí es un elemento en el centro de las luchas por el sentido en un contexto social más amplio y también en todo lo que implica la práctica y apreciación del fútbol.

Community Organization and Empowerment of Women: The Mujeres Pescadoras del Manglar Cooperative in Oaxaca, Mexico.

Gender equity is still a challenge for the world, especially in those regions where sociocultural practices permeated by machismo, that is, male chauvinism, intersect with poverty and institutionalized racial discrimination. The creation of safe and feminized spaces where women can express themselves freely is crucial in the process of cultivating their awareness of their own positions, and the first step toward individual and collective empowerment. In this article the authors point out the direct and positive relationship between feminine cooperativism and women's empowerment, taking as a case study the Mujeres Pescadoras del Manglar cooperative in Oaxaca, Mexico, a group of women who, thanks to a social work program implemented by La Ventana civic association, has been able to gain empowerment and recognition at a personal and political level. Likewise, Mujeres Pescadoras del Manglar is an example of the national phenomenon of bolstering female employment in the fishing sector, which is on the rise thanks to the growing number of women's cooperatives, through which they can access the labor market, feminize new spaces, and achieve full empowerment for themselves, their families, and the society in which they live. The fieldwork was carried out from November 2018 to February 2019 in the community of El Zapotalito, Oaxaca. The methodology used consists of semistructured interviews, life stories, field diaries, and participant observation. This article showcases a positive example of social work empowering low-income women on the Chica coast of Oaxaca.

"Dormindo com a inimiga": imaginário machista em tempos de Covid-19 / "Sleeping with the enemy": male chauvinism's imaginary in COVID-19 / "Durmiendo con la enemiga": imaginario machista en tiempos de Covid-19

Fundamentando-se na Psicologia Psicanalítica Concreta, criada na América Latina a partir da articulação entre a Psicanálise e o pensamento dialético, este estudo objetiva investigar imaginários coletivos machistas sobre mulheres que estão em relacionamentos conjugais heterossexuais, no contexto do isolamento social decorrente da pandemia da covid-19, justificando-se pelo aumento expressivo de ocorrências de violência doméstica nesse período. Organizando-se ao redor da abordagem psicanalítica de memes sobre relações heterossexuais, a investigação permitiu a produção interpretativa de dois campos de sentido afetivo-emocional ou inconscientes intersubjetivos: "Game over" e "Dormindo com a inimiga". Tais campos revelam crenças de que o casamento tira a liberdade do homem casado, privando-o dos prazeres sexuais que mulheres, concebidas como bonecas eróticas, proporcionam aos solteiros, para colocá-lo sob o autoritarismo da esposa, que, fantasiada como figura maléfica, torna-se alvo de uma violência que se apresenta, nesse imaginário, como justificada e legítima.

Substantiated on the concrete psychoanalytic psychology, created in Latin America, based on the articulation between psychoanalysis and dialectical thinking, this study aims to investigate the male chauvinism's collective imaginary about women in a heterosexual conjugal relationships, in the context of the social isolation resulted from the pandemic of the COVID-19, justified by the significant increase in domestic violence occurrences during this period. It is organized around the psychoanalytic approach to heterosexual relationships' memes that enabled the recognition of two affective-emotional meaning fields, or intersubjective unconscious, socially prevailing: "Game over" and "Sleeping with the enemy", which reveal beliefs that marriage takes away men's freedom, depriving them of the sexual pleasures that women, conceived as erotic dolls, provide to singles, to place them under women's authoritarianism. Imaginatively conceived as a maleficent figure, women become targets of an aggressiveness that present, in this imaginary, as justified and legit.

Fundamentándose en la psicología psicoanalítica concreta, creada en América Latina a partir de la articulación entre psicoanálisis y pensamiento dialéctico, este estudio tiene como objetivo investigar imaginarios colectivos machistas sobre mujeres en relaciones conyugales heterosexuales, dentro del contexto del aislamiento social por la pandemia del covid-19, justificado por el aumento expresivo de casos de violencia doméstica en este período. Se organiza alrededor del abordaje psicoanalítico de memes sobre relaciones heterosexuales que permitió la producción interpretativa de dos campos de sentido afectivo-emocional o inconscientes intersubjetivos, socialmente vigentes: "Game over" y "Durmiendo con la enemiga", que revelan creencias de que el casamiento le quita libertad al hombre, privándote de los placeres sexuales que las mujeres, concebidas como muñecas eróticas, brindan a los solteros, para colocarlo bajo el autoritarismo de la mujer. Concebida imaginativamente como figura maléfica, la mujer se vuelve blanco de una agresividad que aparece, en este imaginario, como justificado y legítimo.

Análisis comparativo de machismo sexual en estudiantes universitarios peruanos y chilenos / Comparative analysis of sexual machismo in Peruvian and Chilean university students

Resumen Introducción: El machismo sexual es una forma de sexismo que denigra a la mujer y que se asocia a diversos factores de riesgo de la salud mental. Objetivo: En el presente estudio se comparan los niveles de machismo en estudiantes universitarios de Perú y Chile en función de su nacionalidad y de otras variables sociodemográficas. Método: La muestra estuvo conformada por 303 estudiantes varones de dos universidades privadas de una ciudad de provincia de ambos países. Se aplicó la Escala de Machismo Sexual de Díaz et al. (2010) que consta de 12 ítems y fue construida y validada previamente para ambas muestras. Resultados: 28% de los estudiantes evaluados presenta altos niveles de machismo, y que los estudiantes peruanos tienen niveles mayores de machismo que los estudiantes chilenos. Además, los estudiantes que consumen alcohol, tabaco y drogas ilegales, de manera frecuente obtuvieron mayores puntajes de machismo sexual. Conclusiones: Se concluye que los estudiantes peruanos son más machistas que sus pares chilenos y que, el machismo sexual está asociado al consumo de sustancias psicoactivas.

Introduction: The sexual machismo is a sort of sexism that denigrate the women and it is associated with several risk factors for mental health. Objective: In the present study we compare the levels of machismo among university students from Peru and Chile according to their nationality and other sociodemographic variables. Method: 303 male students from two private universities located in both countries formed the sample. They were assessment by the 12 items Sexual Machismo Scale designed by Díaz et al. (2010) that was previously validated for both samples. Results: 28% of the students assessment presents high levels of machismo, and Peruvian students have higher levels of machismo comparing to the Chilean students. Moreover, the students who use to frequently consume alcohol, tobacco and illegal drugs, obtained higher punctuations on sexual machismo. Conclusions: We conclude that Peruvian students are more chauvinist than their Chilean counterparts, and sexual machismo is associated to de consumption of psychoactive substances.

A violência obstétrica praticada contra mulheres negras no SUS / Obstetric violence against black women in SUS / Violencia obstétrica contra las mujeres negras en el SUS

Este artigo examina a violência obstétrica contra mulheres negras no Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), partindo de experiências de estágio e extensão universitária em Psicologia, em maternidades públicas, de distintos níveis de complexidade, coadunadas a pesquisas de Iniciação Científica Pibic/CNPq. Em nossa cultura, as mulheres sempre foram corpos para reprodução e, há poucos séculos, passaram a ser subjugadas ao saber médico - sobretudo, da obstetrícia e ginecologia. A expropriação das mulheres, de seus corpos, de seus protagonismos reprodutivos, ratificada pelos homens da elite branca - cientistas - impactaram na assistência a elas prestada. O SUS, marcado por princípios como universalidade, equidade e integralidade, reproduz opressões, discriminações, violências e violações sobre os corpos femininos, especialmente sobre aqueles cujos tons se distanciam do modelo dominante. Para evidenciar a reprodução de racismo e machismos estruturais no SUS, tomamos a violência obstétrica como analisador.

This article examines obstetric violence against black women in SUS, starting from internship and university extension experiences in Psychology, in public maternity hospitals of different levels of complexity, coadunted to PIBIC/CNPq Scientific Initiation research. In our culture, women have always been bodies for reproduction and for centuries they have been subjugated to medical knowledge - especially obstetrics and gynecology. The expropriation of women from their bodies, their reproductive protagonisms, ratified by the men of the white elite - scientists - has impacted the assistance provided to them. The Unified Health System, marked by principles such as universality, equity and integrality, reproduces oppressions, discrimination, violence and violations over women's bodies, especially over those whose shades are far from the dominant model. In order to evidence the reproduction of racism and structural machisms in SUS, we take obstetric violence as an analyzer.

Este artículo examina la violencia obstétrica contra las mujeres negras en el SUS, a partir de experiencias de pasantía y extensión universitaria en Psicología, en maternidades públicas de diferentes niveles de complejidad, coadyuvadas a la investigación de la Iniciación Científica del PIBIC/CNPq. En nuestra cultura, las mujeres siempre han sido cuerpos para la reproducción y durante siglos han estado sometidas a los conocimientos médicos - especialmente de obstetricia y ginecología. La expropiación de las mujeres de sus cuerpos, de sus protagonismos reproductivos, ratificada por los hombres de la élite blanca - científicos - repercutió en la asistencia que se les prestó. El Sistema Único de Salud, marcado por principios como la universalidad, la equidad y la integralidad, reproduce la opresión, la discriminación, la violencia y las violaciones sobre el cuerpo de las mujeres, especialmente sobre aquellas cuyos matices están lejos del modelo dominante. Para resaltar la reproducción del racismo y el machismo estructural en el SUS, tomamos la violencia obstétrica como un analizador.

Escala de Machismo Sexual: evidências psicométricas em contexto brasileiro / Sexual Machismo Scale: psychometric evidence in the brazilian context / Escala Machismo Sexual: evidencias psicométricas en el contexto brasileño

O presente artigo objetivou adaptar a Escala de Machismo Sexual para o contexto brasileiro, reunindo evidências de seus parâmetros psicométricos. Contou-se com uma amostra não probabilística de 219 universitários (Estudo 1) e 200 indivíduos (Estudo 2), com médias de idade semelhantes (M = 21,6; DP = 4,06; M = 19,0, DP = 5,20; respectivamente), sendo distribuídos igualmente em relação ao sexo no Estudo 1 e a maioria do sexo feminino no Estudo 2 (68,0%). Estes responderam a Escala de Machismo Sexual, a Escala de Sexismo Ambivalente e perguntas demográficas. Os estudos revelaram uma solução unifatorial, com indicadores de consistência interna satisfatórios (α = 0,81 e α = 0,76) e validade convergente confirmada por meio da correlação com o fator Sexismo Hostil e Sexismo Benévolo. Ademais, uma análise fatorial confirmatória corroborou tal dimensão preconizada. Conclui-se que essa medida se mostrou psicometricamente adequada para utilização no referido contexto. (AU)

The current paper sought to adapt the Sexual Machismo Scale to the Brazilian context, gathering evidence of its psychometric parameters. Non-probabilistic samples of 235 undergraduate students (Study 1) and 200 individuals (Study 2), with similar mean ages (M=21.6; SD=4.06; M=19.0, SD=5.20; respectively), equally distributed by the sex in Study 1 and mostly female in Study 2 (68.0%) were used. Participants completed the Sexual Machismo Scale, the Ambivalent Sexism Scale and demographic questions. The studies showed a single-factor solution, presenting suitable indices of internal consistency (α=0.81 and α=0.76) and confirming the convergent validity through correlations with the hostile and benevolent sexism factors of the Ambivalent Sexism Scale. Additionally, a confirmatory factor analysis corroborated the previous solution. It was concluded that this measure seems to be psychometrically suitable for use in the context mentioned. (AU)

El presente artículo objetivó adaptar la Escala de Machismo Sexual para el contexto brasileño, reuniendo evidencias de sus parámetros psicométricos. La muestra no probabilística estuvo compuesta por 219 universitarios (Estudio 1) y 200 individuos (Estudio 2) de la población general, con promedios de edad similares (X = 21,6; DS = 4,06; X = 19,0; DS = 5,20, respectivamente), siendo distribuidos igualmente en relación con el sexo en el Estudio 1, por otro lado, el Estudio 2 contó con mayoría del sexo femenino (69,9%). Los participantes respondieron a la Escala de Machismo Sexual, la Escala de Sexismo Ambivalente y preguntas demográficas. Los estudios revelaron una solución unifactorial, con indicadores de consistencia interna satisfactorios (α = 0,81 y α = 0,76) y validez convergente confirmada por medio de la correlación con el factor Sexismo Hostil y Sexismo Benévolo de la Escala de Sexismo Ambivalente. Además, un análisis factorial confirmatorio corroboró con los resultados preconizados. Se concluye que esta medida se mostró psicológicamente adecuada para su uso en dicho contexto. (AU)

Recursos de legitimación en torno a prácticas encubiertas de dominación masculina en la sociedad costarricense. Subterfugios de una hegemonía en declive / Legitimation Resources Around Male Domination Practices in Costa Rican Society. Subterfuges of a Declining Hegemony

Resumen A través de las siguientes líneas, se pretende, con un recorrido por algunos términos y autores característicos de los estudios de hombres y masculinidades, explorar elementos con respecto a manifestaciones y dinámicas de dominación masculina actual. Primero, es importante revisar algunos conceptos, en especial, desde la teoría del sexismo ambivalente de Glick y Fiske, seguido de algunas derivaciones de este planteamiento para el correspondiente análisis. De forma posterior, se esboza cómo el machismo se conserva institucionalmente desde componentes básicos estables en la historia: androcentrismo, misoginia, homofobia y falocentrismo. Al final, se plantean algunas reflexiones básicas acerca de desarticular encargos de masculinidad hegemónica en la sociedad. Más que una desaparición de patrones machistas, el patriarcado, como estructura colectiva, se adecua a diferentes escenarios relacionados con el contexto social. Esto se asocia siempre, en cada época histórica, a la dificultad por cuestionarle en los grupos sociales donde se sustenta. Incentivar en los hombres una consciencia crítica del fenómeno, fomentar una acción trasformadora y ser protagonistas en un proceso de deconstrucción de las normas masculinas tradicionales es vital en un proceso de desarticulación del sistema patriarcal como primera entrada y, por ende, la construcción de un sistema social igualitario consciente de diversidades en género.

Abstract: In the following lines, we intend to tour some terms and authors characteristic of the studies of men and masculinities, to explore elements regarding manifestations and dynamics of current male domination. First, it is important to review some concepts especially from the theory of ambivalent sexism of Glick and Fiske, followed by some derivations of this approach for the corresponding analysis. Subsequently, we outline how machismo is conserved institutionally from stable core components in history: androcentrism, misogyny, homophobia and phallocentrism. In the end, we raise some basic reflections about disarticulating orders of hegemonic masculinity in society. Rather than a disappearance of macho patterns, patriarchy as a collective structure adapts to different scenarios related to the social context. This is always associated, in each historical era, with the difficulty of questioning it in the social groups that sustain it. Thus, it is of primordial importance to encourage in men a critical awareness of the phenomenon, to promote a transformative action and be protagonists in a process of deconstruction of traditional male norms; these are vital, in a process of disarticulation of the patriarchal system and, thus, allowing the construction of an egalitarian social system aware of gender diversity.

Cultural values and romantic relationship satisfaction in Mexican adolescents: The moderating effects of parental psychological control and gender.

INTRODUCTION: Cultural values and parent-adolescent relationships may impact adolescents' romantic relationship quality. The goal of this study was to examine whether perceived mothers' and fathers' psychological control and gender moderated associations between cultural values (i.e., machismo, caballerismo, views of female virginity) and romantic relationship satisfaction in Mexican adolescents. METHODS: Self-report survey data were collected from 213 adolescents (M = 14.59 years old; 50.5% girls) from two public schools in Mexico. All participants were in a romantic relationship at time of study, and reported on their age, gender, endorsement of cultural values (i.e., machismo, caballerismo, views of female virginity), perceived parental psychological control, and romantic satisfaction. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on a romantic relationship satisfaction scale. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess interactions between cultural values, mothers' and fathers' psychological control, and gender on romantic relationship satisfaction. RESULTS: Findings revealed adolescents who endorsed caballerismo reported higher relationship satisfaction. These associations were strongest for adolescent girls reporting low maternal psychological control and adolescent boys reporting high maternal psychological control. Perceived fathers' psychological control did not moderate associations between cultural values and romantic satisfaction. No associations were found between machismo, female virginity, and romantic relationship satisfaction. CONCLUSION: Adolescents' caballersimo values were linked to higher relationship satisfaction. Findings suggest that parent education programs in Mexico may benefit from teaching parents to instill values of caballerismo in their romantically involved adolescents. Additionally, specialists working with Mexican adolescent girls may help them reframe perceived psychologically controlling behaviors into attempts to communicate affection.

Idosas condutoras de veículos: considerações sob a ótica da Psicologia do Trânsito / Elderly female drivers: considerations from the perspective of Traffic Psychology / Ancianas conductoras de vehículos: consideraciones bajo la óptica de la Psicología del Tránsito

Neste trabalho objetivou-se levantar e expor os preconceitos e a discriminação sofrida por idosas condutoras de veículos, analisando-os sob a ótica da psicologia do trânsito, neste país em que a feminização da velhice é uma tendência concreta. O preconceito engendrado na sociedade brasileira contra as condutoras de veículos é agravado pelo estereótipo negativo e a desvalorização que os idosos precisam enfrentar. Por isso, a condutora idosa sofre duplamente no trânsito, por ser mulher em uma sociedade machista, e por já se encontrar na velhice.

In this work it was intended to bring awareness and expose the prejudices and the discrimination faced by elderly female drivers, analyzing from the perspective of traffic psychology, in a country where the feminization of old age is a concrete trend. The prejudice that is rooted in the Brazilian society against the female drivers is aggravated by the negative stereotype and the devaluation that elderly people face. For this reason, the elderly female driver suffers twice as much in the traffic, first from being a woman in a misogynist society and second for being already in this phase of human development, which is growing old.

En este trabajo se objetivó levantar y exponer los prejuicios y la discriminación sufrida por ancianas conductoras de vehículos, analizándolos bajo la óptica de la psicología del tránsito, en un país donde la feminización de la vejez es una tendencia concreta. El preconcepto engendrado en la sociedad brasileña contra las conductoras de vehículos es agravado por el estereotipo negativo y la devaluación que enfrentan los ancianos. Por eso, la conductora anciana sufre doblemente en el tránsito, por ser mujer en una sociedad machista y por ya encontrarse en la fase del desarrollo humano, la vejez.

Reflections of Men of Mexican Origin: A Grounded Theory Study of Intimate Partner Violence Risk Factors.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a societal problem with many repercussions for the health care and judicial systems. In the United States, women of color are frequently affected by IPV and experience negative, physical, and mental ramifications. Increasing IPV perpetration and perpetration recurrence rates among men of Mexican origin (MMO) warrants a better understanding of unique risk factors that can only be described by these men. Qualitative studies regarding MMO and distinct IPV risk factors among this populace are few and infrequent. The purpose of this study was to describe IPV risk factors among men of MMO and to describe the process by which these men are able to overcome IPV perpetration risk factors. Fifty-six men of Mexican origin from a low-income housing community in far-west Texas were recruited for participation in audiotaped focus groups. Grounded theory (GT) methodology techniques were utilized to analyze, translate, and transcribe focus group data. Data collection ended when saturation occurred. Participants described risk factors for IPV. Emerging themes included: environment as a context, societal view of MMO, family of origin, normalcy, male and female contributing factors to IPV, and breaking through. Theme abstractions led to the midrange theory of Change Through Inspired Self-Reflection which describes the process of how MMO move from IPV perpetration to nonviolence. The results of the study provide insight on what MMO believe are IPV risk factors. There are implications for clinicians who provide services to MMO, and provide the impetus for future research among this population.

How Self-Objectification Impacts Physical Activity Among Adolescent Girls in Costa Rica.

BACKGROUND: In Latin America, more than 80% of adolescent girls are physically inactive. Inactivity may be reinforced by female stereotypes and objectification in the Latin American sociocultural context. METHODS: We examined the influence of objectification on the adoption of an active lifestyle among 192 adolescents (14 and 17 years old) from urban and rural areas in Costa Rica. Analyses of 48 focus-groups sessions were grounded in Objectification Theory. RESULTS: Vigorous exercises were gender-typed as masculine while girls had to maintain an aesthetic appearance at all times. Adolescents described how girls were anxious around the prospect of being shamed and sexually objectified during exercises. This contributed to a decrease in girls' desire to engage in physical activities. Among males, there is also a budding tolerance of female participation in vigorous sports, as long as girls maintained a feminine stereotype outside their participation. CONCLUSION: Self-objectification influenced Costa Rican adolescent girls' decisions to participate in physical activities. Interventions may include: procuring safe environments for physical activity where girls are protected from fear of ridicule and objectification; sensitizing boys about girl objectification and fostering the adoption of a modern positive masculine and female identities to encourage girls' participation in sports.

Exploring the Masculine Identity in the Context of HIV Prevention in Chile.

PURPOSE: This study aims to describe human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-related knowledge and beliefs, as well as understanding attitudes towards masculinity in the context of HIV prevention, held among Chilean men. DESIGN: This study reports the qualitative findings of a sequential qualitative-quantitative mixed methodology study: Bringing men into HIV Prevention in Chile, NIH R01 TW007674-03. METHODS: Twenty in-depth interviews using a qualitative, descriptive approach to elicit information for the study were conducted among men residing in two communities of low socio-economic status in Santiago, Chile. FINDINGS: Content analysis of interviews revealed three main themes regarding machismo and how it relates to HIV: sexuality and machismo, the changing nature of machismo, and violence against women. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing HIV and intimate partner violence through developing education programs tailored to meet the needs of Chilean men are needed to include men in HIV prevention efforts. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Specifically, incorporating ideas of what men consider healthy masculinity and working to destigmatize men who have sex with men are important steps in addressing the negative aspects of machismo.

Transiciones a la adultez: exploración sobre las relaciones románticas y normativas de masculinidad de los adolescentes en el Bañado Sur, Asunción / Transitions to adulthood: exploration of romantic relationships and norms of masculinity adolescents in Bañado Sur, Asunción

Introducción: muchas veces los hombres jóvenes se definen a sí mismos y a su identidad masculina a través de relaciones románticas y sexuales; sus decisiones sexuales pueden afectar su transición hacia la madurez, así como la adquisición de infecciones de transmisión sexual, VIH y tasas de embarazos. Objetivo: Este artículo analiza cómo influyen en el modo en que actúan en las relaciones sexuales y románticas y la formación de su identidad masculina, los grupos de amigos de hombres jóvenes paraguayos, sus familias. Metodología: En el 2010 llevamos a cabo cinco charlasen grupo en Asunción, Paraguay, en las que se examinaron las normas comunitarias con grupos de adolescentes entre 14 y 19 años de edad. Luego entrevistamos a la mitad de los miembros de cada grupo para examinar sus relaciones con amigos, la familia, mujeres jóvenes y sus creencias sobre las normas de género existentes. Resultados: Los jóvenes describieron dos tipos de normas masculinas (“pareja/proveedor” y “macho”) y dos tipos de relaciones románticas (“casual” y “formal”). Muchas veces se encontró una concordancia en el lenguaje utilizado para describir cada abanico de conductas, lo que pone de relieve la relación existente entre las normas masculinas y las relaciones románticas.

Introduction: Many times young men define themselves and their male identity through romantic and sexual relationships; their sexual decisions can affect their transition to adulthood as well as the acquisition of sexually transmitted infections, HIV and pregnancy rates. Objective:This article discusses how to influence the waythey act in sexual and romantic relationshipsand the formation of their male identity, groupsof young men Paraguay an friends, their families. Methodology: In 2010 we conducted five talks group in Asuncion, Paraguay, in which Community rules were examined with groups of teenagers between 14 and 19 years old. Then we interviewed half of the members of each group to examine their relationships with friends, family, young women and their beliefs about existing gender norms. Results: Young described two types of male norms(“partner / supplier” and “male”) and two types of romantic relationships (“casual” and “formal”).Many times a match was found in the languageused to describe each range of behaviors, which highlights the relationship between male normsand romantic relationships. The rules received bythe neighborhood as models that were more machobehavior by young people themselves informedcharacteristics. The rules can not be changed unlessyoung people talk about their behavior clearly notnormative. This demonstrates that further studieson the formation, meaning and transformation of male standards are needed.