Cuba-U.S. scientific collaboration: Beyond the embargo.

Cuba and the U.S. have the oldest Academies of Sciences outside Europe. Both countries have a long history of scientific collaboration that dates to the 1800s. Both scientific communities also share geographical proximity and common scientific research interests mainly in Biotechnology, Meteorology, and Public Health research. Despite these facts, scientists from both nations face serious barriers to cooperation raised by the U.S. embargo established in 1961 that prohibits exchanges with Cuba. The study aims to analyze the effects of U.S. policy on scientific collaboration with Cuban scientific institutions. The results of the bibliometric analysis of Cuba-U.S. joint publications in the Web of Science, and Scopus databases between 1980 to 2020 indicate sustained growth of scientific collaboration between scientists of both nations over the past forty years. The results also show that after the 1980 Smithsonian Institution and the Cuba's Academy of Sciences agreement significantly increased scientific collaboration between U.S. scientists with their Cuban peers. President Barack Obama's approach to normalizing the U.S. Cuba relations in 2015 enhanced Cuban scientific production with U.S. scientists by exceeding the number of collaborative papers published during any preceding U.S. Presidential administration. By 2020, Cuba had expanded its scientific links to 80% of the countries in the world. Cuban and U.S. scientists converted from adversaries into partners, showing that science is an effective diplomatic channel. A particularly important question for the future is how robust is the collaboration system in the face of greater political restrictions?

Regional cooperation and health diplomacy in Africa: from intra-colonial exchanges to multilateral health institutions.

Tracing the pathways of cooperation in health in sub-Saharan Africa from hesitant exchanges to institutionalized dimensions from the 1920s to the early 1960s, this article addresses regional dynamics in health diplomacy which have so far been under-researched. The evolution thereof from early beginnings with the League of Nations Health Organization to the Commission for Technical Assistance South of the Sahara and the World Health Organization's Regional Office for Africa, shows how bilateral dimensions were superseded by WHO's multilateral model of regional cooperation in health. Alignments, divergences, and outcomes are explored with respect to the strategies and policies pursued by colonial powers and independent African states regarding inter-regional relations, and their implications for public health and epidemiological interventions.

Regional cooperation and health diplomacy in Africa: from intra-colonial exchanges to multilateral health institutions / Cooperação regional e diplomacia sanitária na África: dos intercâmbios intracoloniais às instituições multilaterais de saúde

Abstract Tracing the pathways of cooperation in health in sub-Saharan Africa from hesitant exchanges to institutionalized dimensions from the 1920s to the early 1960s, this article addresses regional dynamics in health diplomacy which have so far been under-researched. The evolution thereof from early beginnings with the League of Nations Health Organization to the Commission for Technical Assistance South of the Sahara and the World Health Organization's Regional Office for Africa, shows how bilateral dimensions were superseded by WHO's multilateral model of regional cooperation in health. Alignments, divergences, and outcomes are explored with respect to the strategies and policies pursued by colonial powers and independent African states regarding inter-regional relations, and their implications for public health and epidemiological interventions.

Resumo Trilhando os caminhos da cooperação sanitária na África subsaariana, de intercâmbios incertos a dimensões institucionalizadas dos anos 1920 até início dos anos 1960, este artigo aborda a dinâmica regional na diplomacia sanitária que, até o momento, carece de pesquisas. A evolução, desde os primórdios da Organização da Saúde da Liga das Nações até a Cooperação Técnica na África Subsaariana e o Escritório Regional da África da OMS, demonstra como dimensões bilaterais foram substituídas pelo modelo multilateral da OMS de cooperação sanitária regional. São analisados alinhamentos, divergências e resultados de estratégias e políticas empregados por potências coloniais e Estados africanos independentes em relações inter-regionais, bem como suas implicações em intervenções epidemiológicas e de saúde pública.

Diez años de la Alianza Latinoamericana de Salud Global: una iniciativa pionera / Ten years of the latin american global health alliance: a pioneering initiative

Este artículo presenta una síntesis sinóptica de los fundamentos teóricos y la praxis de la Alianza Latinoamericana de Salud Global ­ALASAG­ al cumplir 10 años desde su creación. En él se expone tanto los antecedentes como las diversas actividades realizadas de manera colaborativa e integrada por esta Alianza conformada por 10 instituciones académicas líderes en salud pública que realizan programas de docencia, investigación y relaciones con los entornos nacionales e internacional en Salud Global. Una iniciativa prioritaria a partir del año 2010 ha sido la realización de 6 congresos de alcance e impacto internacional en diferentes países, docencia tanto de pre como de postgrado y recientemente la ejecución de proyectos en temas prioritarios. Igualmente, ALASAG ha participado en congresos y reuniones internacionaes y establecido valiosas colaboraciones con organismos de Naciones Unidas tales como OMS y OPS, multilaterales latinoamericanos y bilaterales a nivel global. El artículo plantea igualmente, según opinión de los autores, las fortalezas y debilidades experimentadas por esta Alianza durante sus 10 años de existencia, y concluye señalando los desafíos en término de las políticas, programas, innovación, investigación y formación de recursos humano, frente a la nueva realidad de salud, social, política y económica que enfrentan nuestros países durante esta pandemia y en la post pandemia. (AU)

This article gives a synoptic synthesis of the theoretical foundations and praxis of the Latin American Alliance for Global Health, or ALASAG - an acronym based on the name of the group in Spanish ­ to mark its 10th anniversary. The authors present the context of the Alliance's creation and the various collaborati-ve and integrative activities carried out by ALASAG, which is made up of ten leading academic public health institution that are dedicated to teaching, researching, and forging relationships with both national and international entities to promote the field of Global Health.Since 2010, Alliance's priorities have included organizing six international global health conferences in different countries, teaching undergraduate and postgradua-te students, and mosty recently, conducting research on priority issues. Similarly, ALASAG has participated in international congresses and meetings and has establi-shed valuable collaborations with United Nations organizations, such as WHO and PAHO, as well as multilateral Latin American and global bilteral partnerships.Finally, the article explores ALASAG's strengths and weaknesses that have been iden-tifed over the past decade, and in light of the new health, social, political, and eco-nomic realities brought on by the pandemic, the article concludes by pointing out the challenges, in the areas of policy-making, program implementation, innovation, research, and capacity building, that our countries will face going foward. (AU)

Sistema Informático para la Gestión de Información referente a la Colaboración Médica / Medical Collaboration Information Management Computer System

La revolución cubana no esperó su desarrollo económico y consolidación política para comenzar a brindar ayuda internacionalista en el campo de la salud. El número de colaboradores y de países donde se brinda esta labor se ha incrementado en grandes cifras. En la Dirección Provincial de Salud de Ciego de Ávila se maneja un elevado volumen de información de los trabajadores de la salud, a partir del cual se realizan análisis en diferentes escenarios para determinar la disponibilidad de estos trabajadores, este proceso resulta engorroso y deficiente desarrollarlo manualmente. Esta investigación tiene como objetivo desarrollar un sistema informático, a partir del empleo de bases de datos y tecnología Web, para aminorar estas insuficiencias en la provincia. A partir de la implementación de este sistema, la Dirección Provincial de Salud cuenta con una herramienta capaz de gestionar información referente a la colaboración médica, la cual funciona correctamente(AU)

The Cuban revolution did not wait for its economic development and political consolidation to begin providing international help in the health field. The number of collaborators and countries where this work is provided has increased in large numbers. In the Provincial Health Directorate of Ciego de Ávila, a high volume of health workers information is handled, from which analysis are carried out in different scenarios, this process is cumbersome and difficult to develop manually. This research aims to develop a computer system, based on the use of databases and Web technology, to reduce these deficiencies in the province. As of the implementation of this system, the Provincial Health Directorate has a tool capable of managing information related to medical collaboration, which works correctly(AU)

The Birth of Angiotensin: An International Compromise.

Irvine Page in the United States and Eduardo Braun-Menéndez in Argentina led teams of investigators that studied the role of the kidney in blood pressure regulation. Contemporaneously in 1939, each team using different methods discovered and described a new substance now known as angiotensin. At the time of discovery, Page called it "angiotonin" and Braun-Menéndez called it "hipertensina," anglicized to "hypertensin." Over time, the importance of this substance in circulatory control, pathophysiology and pharmacology became indisputable and the need for a single name became obvious. In a remarkable accommodation, Page and Braun-Menéndez agreed to forego any claim to priority and chose a name with elements of both. Following this compromise, Page and Braun-Menéndez went on to become leaders in science in their own countries as well as recognition world-wide while, angiotensin and its derivatives have become standard components in the understanding and treatment of diseases of the heart, kidney and brain.

[The Red Cross, Pan-Americanism and health in the inter-war period]. / La Cruz Roja, el panamericanismo y la salud en el período de entreguerras.

The Red Cross, an international organization originally founded in Europe, promoted in different Latin American countries the formation of national societies under the humanitarian and neutral principles in relation to the treatment of prisoners in times of armed conflicts. After the First World War and under the influence of the United States, the League of the Red Cross Societies was fostered to design and apply sanitary and social actions in times of peace. Based on that boost, different Pan-American Congresses were held in the twenties and thirties in Buenos Aires, Washington and Rio de Janeiro, which had an agenda that coincided with the principles of this international organization and, at the same time, allowed the elites and the state and private organisms of different fields to unify in pursuit of intervening in different social sectors.

La Cruz Roja, organismo internacional originalmente organizado en Europa, provocó la formación de sociedades nacionales en distintos países latinoamericanos bajo los principios humanitarios y neutrales relacionados con el tratamiento de prisioneros en épocas de conflictos bélicos. Luego de la Primera Guerra Mundial y bajo la influencia estadounidense, se impulsaron la Liga de las Sociedades de la Cruz Roja para el diseño y aplicación de acciones sanitarias y sociales en tiempos de paz. A partir de ese impulso, en la década de 1920 y 1930, se realizaron congresos panamericanos en Buenos Aires, Washington y Río de Janeiro que dispusieron una agenda coincidente con los principios de esta organización internacional que, a su vez, permitieron unificar las élites, los organismos estatales y privados de diferentes ámbitos en pos de la intervención sobre diferentes sectores sociales.

La Cruz Roja, el panamericanismo y la salud en el período de entreguerras / The Red Cross, Pan-Americanism and health in the inter-war period

RESUMEN La Cruz Roja, organismo internacional originalmente organizado en Europa, provocó la formación de sociedades nacionales en distintos países latinoamericanos bajo los principios humanitarios y neutrales relacionados con el tratamiento de prisioneros en épocas de conflictos bélicos. Luego de la Primera Guerra Mundial y bajo la influencia estadounidense, se impulsaron la Liga de las Sociedades de la Cruz Roja para el diseño y aplicación de acciones sanitarias y sociales en tiempos de paz. A partir de ese impulso, en la década de 1920 y 1930, se realizaron congresos panamericanos en Buenos Aires, Washington y Río de Janeiro que dispusieron una agenda coincidente con los principios de esta organización internacional que, a su vez, permitieron unificar las élites, los organismos estatales y privados de diferentes ámbitos en pos de la intervención sobre diferentes sectores sociales.

ABSTRACT The Red Cross, an international organization originally founded in Europe, promoted in different Latin American countries the formation of national societies under the humanitarian and neutral principles in relation to the treatment of prisoners in times of armed conflicts. After the First World War and under the influence of the United States, the League of the Red Cross Societies was fostered to design and apply sanitary and social actions in times of peace. Based on that boost, different Pan-American Congresses were held in the twenties and thirties in Buenos Aires, Washington and Rio de Janeiro, which had an agenda that coincided with the principles of this international organization and, at the same time, allowed the elites and the state and private organisms of different fields to unify in pursuit of intervening in different social sectors.

Los primeros internacionalistas que conocí / The first internationalists

Relato de perfil histórico a manera de crónica que describe como comenzó y alcanzó importante papel la presencia en Cuba de personal profesional de la salud que trabajó como colaboradores internacionalistas en momentos en que se producía lo que llamamos el "éxodo médico", o sea la emigración inducida por los enemigos de la Revolución creando problemas en la cobertura y calidad de los servicios de salud. La fuente principal para identificar nombres, nacionalidad y lugar de trabajo fue un artículo en la revista Tribuna Médica de Cuba, órgano oficial del Colegio Médico Nacional, el conocimiento del autor de no pocos de éstos internacionalistas y consultas realizadas con colegas que conocieron de estas circunstancias. Se distinguen los voluntarios que por decisión personal vinieron a Cuba y los que aceptaron voluntariamente venir en el marco de las relaciones intergubernamentales de sus países con Cuba. Entre los primeros todos los de países de América y de Europa Occidental. Los segundos de Europa Oriental(AU)

Historical profile report as a chronicle that describes how the presence in Cuba of professional health personnel who worked as internationalist collaborators at a time when what we call the "medical exodus", that is, emigration, began and reached an important role. induced by the enemies of the Revolution creating problems in the coverage and quality of health services. The main source to identify names, nationality and place of work was an article in the magazine Tribuna Médica de Cuba, official organ of the National Medical Association, the author's knowledge of not a few of these internationalists and consultations with colleagues who knew about these circumstances . Volunteers who came to Cuba by personal decision and those who voluntarily agreed to come within the framework of the intergovernmental relations of their countries with Cuba are distinguished. Among the first all of countries of America and Western Europe. The seconds of Eastern Europe(AU)

Traductores argelinos en el Hospital Oftalmológico Amistad Argelia-Cuba. Apuntes históricos y evolución / Algerian translators in the Ophthalmological Hospital Amistad Algeria-Cuba. Historical notes and evolution

Se realizó un análisis cronológico de la historia de la labor de los traductores argelinos en el Hospital Oftalmológico Amistad Argelia-Cuba, El Oued, Argelia, desde su inauguración en agosto de 2015 hasta la actualidad, con el objetivo de divulgar las experiencias en este tipo de trabajo. Los datos se obtuvieron de entrevistas a traductores que laboran en la institución desde su puesta en marcha, los cuales aportaron además fotografías, lo que permitió, reunir la información necesaria para desarrollar este artículo. Se abordó la evolución del binomio médico-traductor, para garantizar una atención oftalmológica adecuada en la institución(AU)

A chronological analysis was done of the history of the work of the Algerian translators in the Ophthalmological Hospital Algeria-Cuba, El Oued, from its inauguration in August 2015 to the present, with the aim of disseminating the experiences in this type of work. The data was obtained from interviews with translators who work at the institution since its implementation, who also contributed photographs, for obtaining the necessary information to develop this article. The evolution of the doctor-translator binomial was addressed, in order to guarantee adequate ophthalmological care in the institution(AU)

A critical assessment of INPAs scientific cooperation based on publications from 2004 to 2014 / Uma avaliação crítica da cooperação científica do INPA baseada em publicações entre 2004 e 2014

In the 1990s, scientific cooperation at the National Institute for Amazonian Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - INPA), one of the oldest research institutions in Amazonia with the highest regional international cooperation, was dominated by research conducted by INPAs foreign partners. In this article, the evolution of this situation is evaluated, with the hypothesis that, as the internal and the external environments have changed over the past decade, this should be reflected in more symmetrical research cooperation. The analysis was based on a 2004 to 2014 Web of Science search of scientific production at INPA, from which 786 papers were recovered. The results indicated an increase in scientific production but without a corresponding increase in symmetrical cooperation. The level of symmetry varied according to the type of cooperation; it increased when Brazilian institutions were exclusively involved, although these papers tended to be published in journals with a low impact factor. However, the scientific relationships remained relatively asymmetrical when only foreign institutions were involved, although these papers were published in journals with high impact factors. Network analyses indicated that most international scientific cooperation was concentrated in just two INPA research departments: Biodiversity and Environmental Dynamics. In contrast, INPAs other two research departments, Technology & Innovation and Society, Environment & Health were peripheral, fragmented and benefited little from international cooperation.(AU)

Na década de 1990, a cooperação científica no Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Amazônica (INPA), uma das instituições de pesquisa mais antigas da Amazônia e que concentra grande parte da cooperação internacional regional, foi dominada por pesquisas realizadas pelos parceiros estrangeiros do INPA. Neste artigo, a evolução desta situação é avaliada, com a hipótese de que, à medida que os ambientes interno e externo mudaram ao longo da última década, isso deve refletir-se em uma cooperação cientifica mais simétrica. A análise baseou-se em um levantamento da produção científica do INPA na Web of Science de 2004 a 2014, em que foram recuperados 786 documentos. Os resultados indicaram um aumento na produção científica, mas sem um aumento correspondente na simetria da cooperação. O nível de simetria variou de acordo com o tipo de cooperação; aumentou quando estavam envolvidas exclusivamente instituições brasileiras, embora esses artigos tenham sido publicados em revistas com baixo fator de impacto. No entanto, as relações científicas permaneceram relativamente assimétricas quando apenas instituições estrangeiras estavam envolvidas, embora esses trabalhos tenham sido publicados em revistas com fatores de impacto mais altos. As análises de rede indicaram que a maior parte da cooperação científica internacional se concentrou em apenas dois departamentos de pesquisa do INPA: Biodiversidade e Dinâmica Ambiental. Em contraste, os outros dois departamentos de pesquisa do INPA, Tecnologia & Inovação e Sociedade, Ambiente & Saúde foram periféricos, fragmentados e pouco se beneficiaram da cooperação internacional.(AU)

El espíritu de Baraguá en la medicina cubana / The spirit of Baraguá in Cuban medicine

Introducción: Baraguá representa la intransigencia revolucionaria del pueblo cubano y en este hecho se demostraron muchos de los valores humanos que siguen hoy los médicos cubanos en su diaria labor. Objetivos: caracterizar el contexto histórico de la Protesta de Baraguá y explicar su influencia en la labor de los médicos cubanos en la actualidad, utilizándose el método lógico-histórico y analítico-sintético. Métodos: se emplearon los métodos histórico-lógico y analítico-sintético para analizar los documentos y bibliografías sobre el tema. Resultados: se presenta un acercamiento a la vigencia que tuvo, tiene y tendrá el pensamiento y accionar de Antonio Maceo, junto a los patriotas que lo acompañaron, en el 138 aniversario de la Protesta de Baraguá. La contribución de su pensamiento revolucionario, como fuente inagotable de lecciones, revive el principio de que el futuro de la patria cubana será un eterno Baraguá que incluye el destino de nuestra práctica médica cotidiana. Conclusiones: los médicos cubanos honran el ejemplo de Antonio Maceo, cumplen con su labor diaria y las disímiles tareas que en materia de internacionalismo les son otorgadas. La disciplina, preparación y constancia de los trabajadores de la salud cubanos, unidos a sus principios de solidaridad, humanismo, valor y compromiso son el legado de los patriotas que como en Baraguá, hicieron frente a las injusticias hacia la patria cubana.(AU)

Introduction: Baraguá represents the revolutionary intransigence of the Cuban people, and in this event they showed many of the human values ​​that today the Cuban doctors follow in their daily work. Objectives: To characterize the historical context of the Protest of Baraguá and to explain its influence on the work of Cuban doctors today, using the logical-historical and analytical-synthetic method. Methods: Historical-logical and analytical-synthetic methods were used to analyze documents and bibliography on the subject. Results: An approach to the validity that the thought and action of Antonio Maceo have had, have and will have, along with those of the patriots who accompanied him, on the 138th anniversary of the Protest of Baraguá. The contribution of his revolutionary thought, as an inexhaustible source of lessons, revives the principle that the future of the Cuban fatherland will be an eternal Baraguá that includes the fate of our daily medical practice. Conclusions: Cuban doctors honor the example of Antonio Maceo, fulfill their daily work and the different tasks oriented in the field of internationalism. The discipline, training and perseverance of Cuban health workers, together with their principles of solidarity, humanism, courage and commitment, are the legacy of the patriots who, as in Baraguá, faced injustice against the Cuban homeland(AU)

El espíritu de Baraguá en la medicina cubana / The spirit of Baraguá in Cuban medicine

Introducción: Baraguá representa la intransigencia revolucionaria del pueblo cubano y en este hecho se demostraron muchos de los valores humanos que siguen hoy los médicos cubanos en su diaria labor. Objetivos: caracterizar el contexto histórico de la Protesta de Baraguá y explicar su influencia en la labor de los médicos cubanos en la actualidad, utilizándose el método lógico-histórico y analítico-sintético. Métodos: se emplearon los métodos histórico-lógico y analítico-sintético para analizar los documentos y bibliografías sobre el tema. Resultados: se presenta un acercamiento a la vigencia que tuvo, tiene y tendrá el pensamiento y accionar de Antonio Maceo, junto a los patriotas que lo acompañaron, en el 138 aniversario de la Protesta de Baraguá. La contribución de su pensamiento revolucionario, como fuente inagotable de lecciones, revive el principio de que el futuro de la patria cubana será un eterno Baraguá que incluye el destino de nuestra práctica médica cotidiana. Conclusiones: los médicos cubanos honran el ejemplo de Antonio Maceo, cumplen con su labor diaria y las disímiles tareas que en materia de internacionalismo les son otorgadas. La disciplina, preparación y constancia de los trabajadores de la salud cubanos, unidos a sus principios de solidaridad, humanismo, valor y compromiso son el legado de los patriotas que como en Baraguá, hicieron frente a las injusticias hacia la patria cubana.(AU)

Introduction: Baraguá represents the revolutionary intransigence of the Cuban people, and in this event they showed many of the human values ​​that today the Cuban doctors follow in their daily work. Objectives: To characterize the historical context of the Protest of Baraguá and to explain its influence on the work of Cuban doctors today, using the logical-historical and analytical-synthetic method. Methods: Historical-logical and analytical-synthetic methods were used to analyze documents and bibliography on the subject. Results: An approach to the validity that the thought and action of Antonio Maceo have had, have and will have, along with those of the patriots who accompanied him, on the 138th anniversary of the Protest of Baraguá. The contribution of his revolutionary thought, as an inexhaustible source of lessons, revives the principle that the future of the Cuban fatherland will be an eternal Baraguá that includes the fate of our daily medical practice. Conclusions: Cuban doctors honor the example of Antonio Maceo, fulfill their daily work and the different tasks oriented in the field of internationalism. The discipline, training and perseverance of Cuban health workers, together with their principles of solidarity, humanism, courage and commitment, are the legacy of the patriots who, as in Baraguá, faced injustice against the Cuban homeland(AU)

Fidel: paradigma de los médicos cubanos / Fidel: the Cuban doctors' paradigm

Se revisan documentos relacionados con el desarrollo de la salud pública cubana después del triunfo de la Revolución y la ayuda a otros pueblos del mundo. Se constata la participación directa del Comandante en Jefe Fidel Castro Ruz en muchos de los logros alcanzados por Cuba en materia de salud y en la práctica del internacionalismo proletario. Asimismo, se demuestra que la voluntad revolucionaria de un hombre como Fidel pudo movilizar la conciencia humana por un mundo mejor

Documents related to the development of the Cuban public health after the victory of the Revolution and the help to other countries are reviewed. The Commander in Chief Fidel Castro Ruz direct participation is verified in many of the achievements reached by Cuba regarding health and in the practice of the proletarian internationalism. Also, it is demonstrated that the revolutionary will of a man as Fidel could mobilize the human conscience for a better world

The missing, the martyred and the disappeared: Global networks, technical intensification and the end of human rights genetics.

In 1984, a group of Argentine students, trained by US academics, formed the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team to apply the latest scientific techniques to the excavation of mass graves and identification of the dead, and to work toward transitional justice. This inaugurated a new era in global forensic science, as groups of scientists in the Global South worked outside of and often against local governments to document war crimes in post-conflict settings. After 2001, however, with the inauguration of the war on terror following the September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center in New York, global forensic science was again remade through US and European investment to increase preparedness in the face of potential terrorist attacks. In this paper, I trace this shift from human rights to humanitarian forensics through a focus on three moments in the history of post-conflict identification science. Through a close attention to the material semiotic networks of forensic science in post-conflict settings, I examine the shifting ground between non-governmental human rights forensics and an emerging security- and disaster-focused identification grounded in global law enforcement. I argue that these transformations are aligned with a scientific shift towards mechanized, routinized, and corporate-owned DNA identification and a legal privileging of the right to truth circumscribed by narrow articulations of kinship and the body.

South-South cooperation in health: bringing in theory, politics, history, and social justice / A cooperação Sul-Sul em saúde: trazendo perspectivas teóricas, políticas, históricas e de justiça social / Cooperación Sur-Sur en salud: aportando perspectivas teóricas, políticas, históricas y de justicia social

Abstract: Since the mid-2000s, the practice of South-South cooperation in health (SSC) has attracted growing attention among policymakers, health and foreign affairs ministries, global health agencies, and scholars from a range of fields. But the South-South label elucidates little about the actual content of the cooperation and conflates the "where" with the "who, what, how, and why". While there have been some attempts to theorize global health diplomacy and South-South cooperation generally, these efforts do not sufficiently distinguish among the different kinds of practices and political values that fall under the South-South rubric, ranging from economic and geopolitical interests to social justice forms of solidarity. In the spirit of deepening theoretical, historical, and social justice analyses of SSC, this article: (1) critically revisits international relations theories that seek to explain SSC, exploring Marxian and other heterodox theories ignored in the mainstream literature; (2) traces the historical provenance of a variety of forms of SSC; and (3) introduces the concept of social justice-oriented South-South.

Resumo: Desde meados da primeira década do século XXI, a cooperação Sul-Sul em saúde (CSS) vem atraindo cada vez mais atenção entre gestores, ministérios da saúde e das relações exteriores, agências de saúde global, e pesquisadores de diversas disciplinas. Não obstante, o uso do termo "Sul-Sul" para caracterizar essa prática explica pouco sobre o conteúdo da cooperação, além de misturar o "onde?" com o "quem, quê, como e por quê?". Já houve algumas tentativas de teorizar a diplomacia da saúde global e a cooperação Sul-Sul geralmente, mas esses esforços têm sido insuficientes no sentido de distinguir as diversas práticas e valores políticos sob a rubrica Sul- Sul, desde os intereses econômicos e geopolíticos até a solidariedade e a justiça social. No espírito de aprofundar as análises políticas, teóricas, históricas, e de justiça social nas discussões sobre a CSS, o artigo: (1) revisita criticamente as teorias de relações internacionais que podem explicar a CSS, explorando teorias en la tradição Marxista e heterodoxas ignoradas na literatura convencional; (2) identifica as origens históricas das diferentes formas dessa cooperação; e (3) introduz o conceito da cooperação Sul-Sul orientada a la justiça social.

Resumen: Desde mediados de los años 2000, la práctica de la cooperación Sur-Sur en salud (CSS) ha recibido una creciente atención entre formuladores de políticas, ministerios de salud y de asuntos exteriores, organismos internacionales de salud y académicos provenientes de un gran abanico de campos científicos. Sin embargo, la denominación cooperación Sur-Sur poco dilucida acerca del contenido real de la cooperación y mezcla el "dónde" con el "quién, qué, cómo, y el por qué". A pesar de que han habido algunos intentos de teorizar sobre la diplomacia en la salud global y la cooperación Sur-Sur en general, estos esfuerzos no han identificado de manera suficiente los distintos tipos de prácticas y los diferentes valores políticos que caen en la rúbrica de CSS, y que incluyen desde los intereses económicos y geopolíticos hasta las formas de solidaridad fieles a la justicia social. Con el ánimo de ahondar en los análisis políticos, teóricos, históricos y de justicia social de la CSS, este artículo: (1) vuelve a examinar críticamente las teorías sobre las relaciones internacionales que intentan explicar la CSS, explorando teorías en la tradición Marxista y otras teorías heterodoxas, que han sido ignoradas en la literatura convencional; (2) rastrea los orígenes históricos de distintas formas de CSS; y (3) presenta el concepto de cooperación Sur-Sur orientada por la justicia social.

A década de Alma-Ata: a crise do desenvolvimento e a saúde internacional / The Alma-Ata Decade: the crisis of development and international health

O presente trabalho analisa as formulações da saúde internacional na altura da realização da Conferencia Internacional sobre Atenção Primaria de Saúde, em 1978, em Alma-Ata, no Cazaquistão, inserindo-as no debate mais geral sobre o desenvolvimento e a cooperação internacional ao longo da década de 1970. Foram mobilizados três conjuntos de concepções e formulações prescritivas sobre o desenvolvimento e a cooperação: a Nova Ordem Econômica Internacional (NOEI); o Informe Dag Hammarskjöld (IDH) e a Abordagem das Necessidades Humanas Básicas (NHB). Em seguida elas foram cotejadas com as proposições presentes nos documentos da Organização Mundial de Saúde e nos pronunciamentos de Halfdan Mahler, seu diretor. Como um todo, esse elenco de formulações e propostas compartilham um largo espectro de termos e noções, assim como boa parte das expectativas de mudança e das tensões presentes nos últimos anos da época clássica do desenvolvimento do pós-segunda guerra.