Impacts of COVID-19 and climate change on wastewater-derived substances in urban drinking water: Evidence from gadolinium-based contrast agents in tap water from Berlin, Germany.

Anthropogenic gadolinium from MRI contrast agents has been detected in surface waters worldwide. It is released with the treated effluents of wastewater treatment plants, similar to other wastewater-derived substances (WWDS) such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products. We determined concentrations of the rare earth elements in tap water from Berlin, Germany, using an automated preconcentration procedure that is both time- and cost-efficient. Anthropogenic gadolinium concentrations in Berlin's tap water increased on average 30-fold between 2009 and 2021. However, the tap water composition responded quickly to the reduced number of MRI scans during the COVID-19 pandemic, and some districts show a decrease from 2016 to 2021. Since climate change causes groundwater levels to decline in many regions, this needs to be mitigated by artificial groundwater recharge with surface water. This will inevitably lead to an increase in WWDS in potable water, which can be cost-efficiently monitored using anthropogenic gadolinium as tracer.

Assessing teratogenic risks of gadolinium in freshwater environments: Implications for environmental health.

Gadolinium (Gd) is among the rare earth elements extensively utilized in both industrial and medical applications. The latter application appears to contribute to the rise in Gd levels in aquatic ecosystems, as it is excreted via urine from patients undergoing MRI scans and often not captured by wastewater treatment systems. The potential environmental and biological hazards posed by gadolinium exposure are still under investigation. This study aimed to assess the teratogenic risk posed by a gadolinium chelate on the freshwater cnidarian Hydra vulgaris. The experimental design evaluated the impact of pure Gadodiamide (25 µg/l, 50 µg/l, 100 µg/l, 500 µg/l) and its commercial counterpart compound (Omniscan®; 100 µg/l, 500 µg/l, 782.7 mg/l) at varying concentrations using the Teratogenic Risk Index (TRI). Here we showed a moderate risk (Class III of TRI) following exposure to both tested formulations at concentrations ≥ 100 µg/l. Given the potential for similar concentrations in aquatic environments, particularly near wastewater discharge points, a teratogenic risk assessment using the Hydra regeneration assay was conducted on environmental samples collected from three rivers (Tiber, Almone, and Sacco) in Central Italy. Additionally, chemical analysis of field samples was performed using ICP-MS. Analysis of freshwater samples revealed low Gd concentrations (≤ 0.1 µg/l), despite localized increases near domestic and/or industrial wastewater discharge sites. Although teratogenic risk in environmental samples ranged from high (Class IV of TRI) to negligible (Class I of TRI), the low Gd concentrations, particularly when compared to higher levels of other contaminants like arsenic and heavy metals, preclude establishing a direct cause-effect relationship between Gd and observed teratogenic risks in environmental samples. Nevertheless, the teratogenic risks observed in laboratory tests warrant further investigation.

Anthropogenic gadolinium in the Tone River (Japan): an update showing a 7.7-fold increase from 1996 to 2020.

BACKGROUND: Anthropogenic gadolinium (Gd), originating from Gd-based contrast agents (GBCAs) used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is widely identified in the aquatic environment with concerns about toxicity and accumulation. We aimed to present new data on anthropogenic Gd in the Tone River, which has the largest drainage area in Japan, and then to compare the current data with those obtained in 1996. METHODS: The water samples were collected on August 9-10, 2020, at 15 different locations of the Tone River in Japan. The concentrations of the rare earth elements (REEs) were measured by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and normalized to Post-Archean Australian Shale to construct shale-normalized REE patterns. The degree of Gd-anomaly was defined as the percentage of anthropogenic Gd to the geogenic background and used to compare the water samples from different locations. Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated. RESULTS: All the samples displayed positive Gd anomalies. The Gd-anomaly ranged from 121 to 6,545% and displayed a repeating decrease-and-increase trend. The Gd-anomaly showed strong positive correlations to the number of hospitals (r = 0.88; p < 0.001) and their MRI units (r = 0.89; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed notable anomalies of Gd concentrations in river water in Japan, with strong positive correlations to the number of major hospitals and their MRI units. Compared with the previous report in 2000, the Gd-anomaly in Tone River increased from 851% (sampled in 1996) to 6,545%, i.e., 7.7 times, reflecting the increased use of GBCAs in hospitals. RELEVANCE STATEMENT: Notable Gd concentration anomalies in river water in Japan were observed. This result underlines the importance of more extensive research on anthropogenic gadolinium, and investigations of risks to human health as well as the development of effective removal technologies may be necessary. KEY POINTS: • All water samples from Tone River displayed positive Gd anomalies. • The Gd anomalies increased to 7.7 times higher over the past 24 years. • Correlations between Gd values and the number of hospitals and MRI units were observed.

Distribution of rare earth elements and assessment of anthropogenic gadolinium in estuarine habitats: The case of Loire and Seine estuaries in France.

Rare earth elements (REEs), attractive to society because of their applications in industry, agriculture and medicine, are increasingly released into the environment especially in industrialized estuaries. This study compared the REE distribution in the abiotic compartments: water (dissolved phase (<0.45 µm), suspended particulate matter (SPM)) and sediment of the Loire and Seine estuaries (France). A total of 8 and 6 sites were investigated in the Loire and Seine, respectively, as well as 5 additional offshore sites for the Loire. Total REE concentrations were higher in the Loire for the dissolved phase (93.5 ± 63.3 vs 87.7 ± 16.2 ng/L), SPM (173.9 ± 18.3 vs 114.0 ± 17.8 mg/kg dw) and sediments (198.2 ± 27.9 vs 73.2 ± 27.4 mg/kg dw), explained by higher geogenic inputs. Individual REE contributions along with normalization highlighted heavy REE enrichments and Gd positive anomalies in the dissolved phase of the two estuaries, whereas REE distributions in SPM and sediments followed the natural abundance of the REE classes. The calculated Gd anomalies in the dissolved phase were higher in the Seine (9.7 ± 3.4) than in the Loire (3.0 ± 0.8), corresponding to 88.3 ± 5.1 % and 64.4 ± 11.1 % of anthropogenic Gd. This demonstrates a higher contamination of the Seine estuary, certainly due to the difference in the number of inhabitants between both areas involving different amounts of Gd used in medicine. The offshore sites of Loire showed lower total REE concentrations (55.8 ± 5.8 ng/L, 26.7 ± 38.2 mg/kg dw and 100.1 ± 11.7 mg/kg dw for the dissolved phase, SPM and sediments, respectively) and lower Gd anomalies (1.2 ± 0.2) corresponding to only 13.3 ± 3.9 % of anthropogenic Gd, confirming a contamination from the watershed. This study comparing two major French estuaries provides new data on the REE distribution in natural aquatic systems.

Fate, subcellular distribution and biological effects of rare earth elements in a freshwater bivalve under complex exposure.

Rare earth elements (REE) are emerging contaminants due to their increased use in diverse applications including cutting-edge and green-technologies. Their environmental concerns and contradicting results concerning their biological effects require an extensive understanding of REE ecotoxicology. Thus, we have studied the fate, bioaccumulation and biological effects of three representative REE, neodymium (Nd), gadolinium (Gd) and ytterbium (Yb), individually and in mixture, using the freshwater bivalve Corbicula fluminea. The organisms were exposed for 96 h at 1 mg L-1 REE in the absence and presence of dissolved organic matter (DOM) reproducing an environmental contamination. Combined analysis of the fate, distribution and effects of REE at tissue and subcellular levels allowed a comprehensive understanding of their behaviour, which would help improving their environmental risk assessment. The bivalves accumulated significant concentrations of Nd, Gd and Yb, which were decreased in the presence of DOM likely due to the formation of REE-DOM complexes that reduced REE bioavailability. The accumulation of Nd, Gd and Yb differed between tissues, with gills > digestive gland ≥ rest of soft tissues > hemolymph. In the gills and in the digestive gland, Nd, Gd and Yb were mostly (>90 %) distributed among metal sensitive organelles, cellular debris and detoxified metal-rich granules. Gadolinium, Yb and especially Nd decreased lysosome size in the digestive gland and disturbed osmo- and iono-regulation of C. fluminea by decreasing Na concentrations in the hemolymph and Ca2+ ATPase activity in the gills. Individual and mixed Nd, Gd and Yb exhibited numerous similarities and some differences in terms of fate, accumulation and biological effects, possibly because they have common abiotic and biotic ligands but different affinities for the latter. In most cases, individual and mixed effects of Nd, Gd, Yb were similar suggesting that additivity approach is suitable for the environmental risk assessment of REE mixtures.

The new era hypothesis of coastal degradation: G(s) elements-gallium, gadolinium, and germanium.

Mining of precious metals contributes to environmental pollution, especially in coastal areas, and conventional treatment methods are not always effective in removing metal contaminants. Some of these metals, such as gadolinium, germanium and gallium, have caused increasing concern worldwide, as little is known about their current concentrations in the aquatic environment and their biological significance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine for the first time the variation of average G(s) concentrations (gallium, gadolinium and germanium) by month/season/site differences along the coast of Istanbul. The ecological risk index was calculated to assess the contamination of seawater and to serve as a diagnostic tool for the mitigation of water pollution. The average distribution G(s) in seawater was in the following order: Ga > Gd > Ge. In addition, the potential ecological risk in the sampling areas ranged from 68 to 1049. Of the three metals, Gd poses the highest ecological risk (grade III). In the spatial distribution of ecological risks, Gd mainly originated from discharges from wastewater treatment plants. Therefore, the sources of the anthropogenic Gd anomaly in wastewater should be identified, as this indicates the possibility of human exposure to potentially harmful anthropogenic compounds.

Biomonitoring of rare earth elements in Southern Norway: Distribution, fractionation, and accumulation patterns in the marine bivalves Mytilus spp. and Tapes spp.

Growing extraction and usage of rare earth elements and yttrium (REY) for medical and industrial applications has resulted in increased discharges into the marine environment. Using Mytilus spp. Mussels and Tapes spp. clams as bioindicator organisms, we analyzed 15 REY in soft tissues of specimens collected at two potentially polluted sites in Southern Norway: in the vicinity of an industry producing gadolinium-based MRI contrast agents (GBCAs) (Lindesnes) and in an industrially-affected fjord (Porsgrunn). The spatial distribution of REY and shale-normalized fractionation patterns were determined to assess the potential anthropogenic contribution of REY at the sites. At both sites, the REY fractionation pattern in soft tissue was characterized by enrichment of light rare earth elements (LREE) over heavy rare earth elements (HREE), while also displaying negative cerium and small positive gadolinium (Gd) anomalies. LREEs contributed to over 80% of the total REY concentrations, with increasing relative enrichment following higher total REY. Gd anomalies remained conserved in most sites despite significant differences in total REY; however, a high Gd anomaly (Gd/Gd* = 4.4) was found downstream of the GBCA industry spillwater outlet, indicating biotic uptake of excess anthropogenic Gd at this site. Total REY concentrations in clams in Porsgrunn were one order of magnitude higher than in mussels in Lindesnes. This may be attributable to freshwater influences in Porsgrunn, where clams collected closer to the river mouth had significantly higher total REY concentrations. This study constitutes the first assessment of REY concentrations in marine bivalves in Norway and can provide useful information for future biomonitoring studies on REY contamination.

European fluxes of medical gadolinium to the ocean: A model based on healthcare databases.

Marine ecosystems are exposed to a multitude of stresses, including emerging metals as Rare Earth Elements. The management of these emerging contaminants represents a significant environmental issue. For the past three decades, the increasing medical use of gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) has contributed to their widespread dispersion in hydrosystems, raising concerns for ocean conservation. In order to control GBCA contamination pathways, a better understanding of the cycle of these elements is needed, based on the reliable characterization of fluxes from watersheds. Our study proposes an unprecedented annual flux model for anthropogenic gadolinium (Gdanth) based on GBCA consumption, demographics and medical uses. This model enabled the mapping of Gdanth fluxes for 48 European countries. The results show that 43 % of Gdanth is exported to the Atlantic Ocean, 24 % to the Black Sea, 23 % to the Mediterranean Sea and 9 % to the Baltic Sea. Together, Germany, France and Italy contribute 40 % of Europe's annual flux. Our study was therefore able to identify the current and future major contributors to Gdanth flux in Europe and identify abrupt changes related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Investigation of anthropogenic gadolinium in tap water of polish cities: Gdansk, Kraków, Warszawa, and Wroclaw.

In urban areas where tap water is often produced by a purification of water supplied from a river bank filtration, a significant fraction of gadolinium (Gd) total pool is of an anthropogenic origin. It happens because Gd-based contrast agents used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are not removed during wastewater treatment and they are discharged to the environment and returned to the water cycle. Despite the growing number of MRI examinations worldwide, little is known about the anthropogenic Gd in Polish surface water as well as drinking water. The aim of this pilot study was to gain information about the occurrence of emergent pollution as Gd in potable water available for inhabitants of Polish municipal areas. Tap water samples from Gdansk, Kraków, Wroclaw and Warszawa were analyzed by an inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometry after their preconcentration by a seaFAST-pico chromatographic system. In this study, the sum of REE was in the range registered in the drinking waters of European urban regions (usually below 100 ng/L). The highest values of the sum of REE total concentrations were observed in the tap water samples collected in Warszawa (37.7 ng/L) and Wroclaw (35.9 ng/L and 32.9 ng/L), where water supplies originate from the Wisla River and Olawa River, respectively. The highest total Gd concentration was observed in the tap water of Warszawa city where the anthropogenic Gd fraction represented about 90% of the total Gd. The lowest values of the sum REE were registered in tap waters of Gdansk (sum of REE below 2.2 ng/L) with up to 17% of the anthropogenic Gd. Thus, our study showed the occurrence of the anthropogenic Gd in all analyzed tap waters.

Isotopes of nitrate and gadolinium fingerprints to assay human inputs in Guarani Aquifer System.

The use of environmental tracers brings comprehensive benefits to the management of water resources since it helps to prevent their pollution, minimize public health risks, and thus reduce the impact of urbanization. In Brazil, the Guarani Aquifer System (GAS) has strategic and environmental importance, making its preservation and sustainable exploitation mandatory. The present study aimed at evaluating sources of contamination in the GAS using the combination of geochemical data and two environmental tracers: nitrate isotopes (15NNO3 and 18ONO3) and one rare earth element (Gadolinium-Gd). For that, five wells-four exploiting the GAS and one the Bauru Aquifer System (BAS)-were selected to discuss the human inputs in groundwater used for public supply in an urban area. Traditional physicochemical analyses were conducted for six campaign samplings and nitrate monitoring for this period was evaluated on a time scale, also considering the accumulated rainfall. Besides that, the double isotopic method (DIM), e.g., δ18ONO3 e δ15NNO3, was applied to identify the fractionation and enable the distinction of the nitrate contamination source. In addition, the determination of anomalies of Gd, a wastewater-derived contaminant, was also performed to verify recent human inputs in groundwater. The results show that the local existence of nitrate in the GAS and BAS-even at low concentrations (values from 0.26 to 6.68 mg L-1)-originated from anthropogenic inputs (septic waste), as indicates the typical isotopic signals ratio in the isotopic approach. Associated with that, the evaluation of Gd permitted the separation of groundwater samples into older or more recent leakages. The use of environmental tracers to assess anthropogenic inputs in groundwater reiterates the importance of adopting more effective protection strategies for water resources management systems, in order to prevent contamination.

Environmental and health-related research on application and production of rare earth elements under scrutiny.

BACKGROUND: Unlike most other commodities, rare earth elements (REEs) are part of a wide range of applications needed for daily life all over the world. These applications range from cell phones to electric vehicles to wind turbines. They are often declared as part of "green technology" and, therefore, often called "green elements". However, their production and use are not only useful but also risky to the environment and human health, as many studies have shown. Consequently, the range of global research efforts is broad and highly variable, and therefore difficult to capture and assess. Hence, this study aims to assess the global parameters of global research on REE in the context of environment and health (REEeh). In addition to established bibliometric parameters, advanced analyses using market driver and scientific infrastructure values were carried out to provide deep insight into incentives, necessities, and barriers to international research. RESULTS: The focus of REE research is in line with national aspirations, especially from the major global players, China and the USA. Whereas globally, regional research interests are related to market interests, as evidenced by the inclusion of drivers such as electric vehicles, wind turbines, and permanent magnets. The topics receiving the most attention are related to gadolinium used for magnetic resonance imaging and the use of ceria nanoparticles. Since both are used for medical purposes, the medical research areas are equally profiled and mainly addressed in high-income countries. Nevertheless, environmental issues are increasingly in focus. CONCLUSIONS: There is still a need for research that is independent and open-ended. For this, market-independent technologies, substitutes and recycling of REEs need to be addressed scientifically. The results of this study are relevant for all stakeholders, from individual scientists to planners to funders, to improve future research strategies in line with these research mandates.

Using micro-synchrotron radiation x-ray fluorescence (µ-SRXRF) for trace metal imaging in the development of MRI contrast agents for prostate cancer imaging.

BACKGROUND: Contrast agents (CA) are administered in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) clinical exams to measure tissue perfusion, enhance image contrast between adjacent tissues, or provide additional biochemical information in molecular MRI. The efficacy of a CA is determined by the tissue distribution of the agent and its concentration in the extracellular space of all tissues. METHODS: In this work, micro-synchrotron radiation x-ray fluorescence (µ-SRXRF) was used to examine and characterize a gadolinium-based zinc-sensitive agent (GdL2) currently under development for detection of prostate cancer (PCa) by MRI. Prostate tissue samples were collected from control mice and mice with known PCa after an MRI exam that included injection of GdL2. The samples were raster scanned to investigate trends in Zn, Gd, Cu, Fe, S, P, and Ca. RESULTS: Significant Zn and Gd co-localization was observed in both healthy and malignant tissues. In addition, a marked decrease in Zn was found in the lateral lobe of the prostate obtained from mice with PCa. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate here that µ-SRXRF is a useful tool for monitoring the distribution of several elements including Zn and Gd in animal models of cancer. The optimized procedures for tissue preparation, processing, data collection, and analysis are described.

Anthropogenic rare earth elements in urban lakes: Their spatial distributions and tracing application.

Anthropogenic activities associated with various new technologies are increasingly disrupting the geochemical cycles of rare earth elements (REEs). For example, samarium (Sm) and gadolinium (Gd) have emerged as microcontaminants in the natural waters of developed areas. Surface water samples of 13 urban lakes were collected in Wuhan, the largest city in central China, with a population of over 11 million. The aim of this study was to examine to what extent REE anomalies occur and the relationship between the concentration of anthropogenic REEs in lakes and the surrounding environment. In this study, based on land-use type and point of interest (POIs) data, buffer extraction, density estimation and Spearman correlation analysis were first proposed to identify different sources of anthropogenic REEs, which mainly included hospitals, factories, population, urban land and cropland. The PAAS-normalized REE patterns indicate that all lake samples display pronounced positive Sm and Gd anomalies, ranging from 5.92 to 19.88 and 1.73 to 14.97, respectively. Spearman correlation analysis showed that hospital density was positively correlated with anthropogenic Gd concentration, and a positive relationship between proportion of cropland and the concentration of anthropogenic Sm. By utilizing Gdanth, Smanth, and the conventional ion ratio (NO3-/Cl-), a three-dimensional tracer system was established, and the system accurately obtained a characterization of the impact of WWTPs, hospitals, factories and agriculture on the lakes. Moreover, the results from this hydrochemical method were consistent with the analysis of geographic information systems, which indicated that this anthropogenic contaminant as a tracer was reliable for analysing the source of urban water pollution.

Lanthanum and Gadolinium availability in aquatic mediums: New insights to ecotoxicology and environmental studies.

Studies dealing with Rare Earth Elements (REE) ecotoxicological behavior are scattered and with potential conflicting results. Climate change impacts on aquatic biota and is known to modify contaminants toxicokinetic. Nevertheless, the current knowledge on the potential interactions between climate change and REE is virtually non-existent. Therefore, we focus our research on La and Gd as representatives of Light and Heavy REE that also are of great environmental concern. Experiments on different mediums (fresh-, brackish- and seawater) were designed to run at present-day and near-future conditions (T°=+4 °C, pH=△-0.4). Sampling was taken at different time scales from minutes to hours for one day. The main challenge was to evaluate the availability of La and Gd under environmental conditions closely related to climate changes scenarios. Furthermore, this study will contribute to the baseline knowledge by which future research towards understanding REE patterns and toxicity will build upon. Lanthanum and Gd behave differently with salinity. Temperature also affects the availability of dissolved La in freshwater. On the other hand, pH reduction causes the decrease of Gd in freshwater. In this medium, concentrations reduce sharply, presumably due to sorption processes or precipitates. In the brackish water experiment only the dissolved La levels in the Warming (T°=+4 °C) and Warming & Acidification (T°=+4 °C, pH=△0.4) diminished significantly through time. Dissolved La and Gd levels in seawater were relatively constant with time. The speciation of both elements is also of great relevance for ecotoxicological experiments. The trivalent free ions (La3+ and Gd3+) were the most common species in the trials. However, as ionic strength increases, the availability of other complexes rose, which should be subject of great attention for upcoming ecotoxicological studies.

Effect of formalin fixation on measured concentrations of deposited gadolinium in human tissue: an autopsy study.

BACKGROUND: Generally, studies of gadolinium (Gd) deposition in humans measure concentration by analyzing formalin fixed postmortem tissue. However, the effect of formalin fixation on measured Gd concentration has not been well investigated. PURPOSE: To evaluate the effect of fixation by comparing Gd concentration in fresh versus formalin-fixed postmortem human tissues. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Fresh samples of bone and skin were collected from autopsy cases with previous exposure to Gd-based contrast agents (GBCAs). The type of GBCA administered, dose, and estimated glomerular filtration rate were recorded. Each tissue sample was cut into three aliquots. Paired samples were stored fresh frozen while the remaining two were stored in 10% neutral buffered formalin for one and three months, respectively. Gd concentration was measured using ICP-MS. RESULTS: Of 18 autopsy cases studied, 12 were exposed to only macrocyclic GBCA, one to only linear agents, and five received both macrocyclic and linear agents. On average, Gd concentration for bone decreased 30.7% after one month of fixation (P = 0.043) compared to non-fixed values. There was minimal, if any, change in concentration between one and three months (average decrease 1.5%; P = 0.89). The findings were numerically similar for skin tissue with an average decrease of 36.9% after one month (P = 0.11) and 6.0% (P = 0.73) between one and three months. CONCLUSION: Formalin fixation appears to decrease Gd concentration in bone and skin by approximately 30%-40% on average. The largest decrease occurs within the first 30 days of fixation followed by a considerably smaller decrease at 60 days.

Measurements and future projections of Gd-based contrast agents for MRI exams in wastewater treatment plants in the Tokyo metropolitan area.

Large amounts of Gd-based contrast agents are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) that are then excreted in urine. These agents are subsequently discharged into the environment because they are difficult to remove by usual sewage treatment techniques. In this study, changes of the Gd anomaly during wastewater treatment processes were determined by analyzing wastewater samples and the possibility for future prediction of the changes was evaluated based on the relationship between the Gd anomaly and the number of MRI devices in use. After the wastewater treatment processes, the values of final effluent were increased 1.8 times compared to those of influent, and the Gd anomaly of effluent had a positive correlation to the number of MRI devices. The finding suggested that the changes of environmental impact were predictable based on the number of MRI devices.

Experimental determination of Gd dose enhancement and Gd dose sparing by 192Ir brachytherapy source with Gafchromic EBT3 dosimeter.

This work evaluates experimentally the dose enhancement factor (DEF) and dose sparing factor (DSF) due to radiation self-shielding, produced by Gd infused in tumor phantom irradiated with brachytherapy HDR 192Ir source by Gafchromic EBT3 dosimeter. The phantom was made of a set of solid water slabs (30 × 30 × 1.0) cm3 and three acrylic slabs of (30 × 30 × 0.5) cm3 machined to contain in the central axis acrylics vials of (1 × 1 × 5) cm3. The first and second acrylic vials were filled with an identical Gd solution of 0, 10 and 20 mg/ml, simulating Gd-doped and undoped tumor, and the third vial was filled in all the measurement only with water, representing an organ at risk. Additional solid water slabs were used to complete a phantom of (30 × 30 × 16) cm3. In the phantom center an acrylic slab was machined to introduce the 2.5 mm flexible guide tube of GammaMed plus iX equipment and positioning the 192Ir source in the phantom central part. EBT3 fragments of (0.9 × 4) cm2 were placed on the inner edge of the second and third vials to measure dose enhancement and dose sparing simultaneously. Phantom CT images were acquired for planning and to prescribe a dose of 6.0 Gy at 2.0 cm of the source, achieving an isodose curve of 44.5% at 3.0 cm (positions of the EBT3 films). Additionally, Monte Carlo simulation of the identical experimental setup was implemented to compare measurement values. The results showed the feasibility of measuring a DEF of 1.15 ± 0.05 in 20 mg/ml of Gd concentration consistent with the Monte Carlo DEF of 1.112 ± 0.005 for the same concentration. DEF value for concentration of 10 mg/ml would not be detected (1.00 ± 0.04) by an expected under measurement of the EBT3 films associated with the non-detection of photoelectrons and Auger electrons of very low energy that cannot reach the radiosensitive substrate.

Variability in hair gadolinium concentrations among decedents who received gadolinium-based contrast agents.

This study utilized laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to quantify gadolinium in the hair of autopsy cases that had received gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) before death. Consecutive autopsy cases were reviewed for GBCA injections and subjects who received a single type of GBCA in the year before death were included. Hair samples were analyzed using LA-ICP-MS as a line scan technique and parameters were optimized to maximize instrument sensitivity, accuracy, and precision. Linear regression analyses between hair measures and gadolinium dose were executed. LA-ICP-MS analysis produced a time-resolved record of GCBA exposure, with the position of the gadolinium peak maxima along the hair shaft providing a good estimate for the day that GBCA injection occurred (R2 = 0.46; p = 0.0022); however, substantial within and between subject variation in the position of the GBCA peak was observed. Average area under the curve for gadolinium peaks in the hair samples was a better predictor of gadolinium dose (R2 = 0.41; p = 0.0046), compared to the average of peak maxima concentration. Correlation between area under the curve and dose suggests that LA-ICP-MS analysis of hair may be an effective method to evaluate gadolinium levels in subjects in vivo after exposure to GBCAs. This study demonstrates that analysis of human hair using techniques with high spatial resolution such as LA-ICP-MS has excellent potential to reveal time-dependent signatures of past exposures.

Gadolinium distribution in kidney tissue determined and quantified by micro synchrotron X-ray fluorescence.

Aims of this study were to investigate gadolinium (Gd) in kidney tissue from a female patient with severe renal failure, who had a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with Gd-based contrast agent (GBCA) three times prior to kidney transplantation. Secondly to assess (semi-)quantitatively the Gd concentration in renal tissue and the spatial distribution of Gd in association to suspected co-elements such as calcium (Ca) and zinc (Zn). Archival paraffin embedded kidney tissue was investigated by micro Synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (µSRXRF) at the DORIS III storage ring at beamline L, HASYLAB/DESY(Hamburg, Germany). Elementary gadolinium (Gd) could be demonstrated in a near histological resolution in areas of about 2 × 1.5 mm2 of size. Mean Gd resulted in 200 ppm with a huge width of distribution (Gd-max: 2000 ppm). In kidney cortex Gd was in-homogeneously, but not randomly, distributed. Gd was verified throughout the investigated tissue. Low Gd was predominately concentrated either in areas with focally atrophic tubules or in areas with totally preserved uriniferous tubes. Moreover, strong correlations existed between Gd and calcium (Ca) or Gd and zinc (Zn) or Gd and strontium (Sr) distribution. Throughout our analysed areas copper (Cu) was nearly homogeneously distributed and Cu association to Gd could not be established, and also not for Gd to Fe. Gd in glomeruli was relatively reduced compared with mean Gd-values, while iron (Fe) distribution clearly demarks glomeruli mostly due to red blood cell iron in these capillary convolutes. Quantitative µSRXRF analysis provided an insight in element spatial distribution of Gd in the renal cortex. The strong correlation of the spatial distribution and associations between elements like Ca, Zn and Sr let us suspect that these elements are involved in the cell metabolism of GBCA. Low Gd in areas with extreme fibrosis and tubule atrophy or in areas with histologically intact tubes, let us suspect that on the one side Gd cannot be transported and deposited into these tissue areas and on the other side we assume that intact renal tubes do not reabsorb and store excreted Gd.

Taylor Dispersion Analysis Coupled to Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry for Ultrasmall Nanoparticle Size Measurement: From Drug Product to Biological Media Studies.

During past decade, special focus has been laid on ultrasmall nanoparticles for nanomedicine and eventual clinical translation. To achieve such translation, a lot of challenges have to be solved. Among them, size determination is a particularly tricky one. In this aim, we have developed a simple hyphenation between Taylor dispersion analysis and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). This method was proven to allow the determination of the hydrodynamic radius of metal-containing nanoparticles, even for sizes under 5 nm, with a relative standard deviation below 10% (with a 95% confidence interval) and at low concentrations. Moreover, its specificity provides the opportunity to perform measurements in complex biological media. This was applied to the characterization of an ultrasmall gadolinium-containing nanoparticle used as a theranostic agent in cancer diseases. Hydrodynamic radii measured in urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and undiluted serum demonstrated the absence of interaction between the particle and biological compounds such as proteins.